UCSB  LIBRARY 
Care  of  Automobiles. 


By  J.  B.  EDWARDS. 


Cincinnati,  Ohio: 

American  Atttomobilk  Digest 

1922 


Copyrighted  1921 

American  automobile  Digest 

All  Rights  Reser'^^ed 


...  CONTENTS  ... 

PAGB 

Foreword  " , iii-iT 

Chapter  I. 
A  Word  on  the  Automobile  Engine T 

Chapter  II. 
The  16- Valve  Motor  and  the  Knight  Type 18 

Chapter  III. 
Horse-Power:   Its  Definition  and  Determination. . .     23 

Chapter  IV. 
The  Fuel  Feed  and  the  Carburetor 31 

Chapter  V. 
Removing  the  Query  from  Carburetor  Adjustment.     41 

Chapter  VI. 
Operation  and  Care  of  Vacuum  Tank.- 50 

Chapter  VII. 
How  Wear  Affects  Valve  Timing 56 

Chapter  VIII. 
Giving  the  "Third  Degree"  to  a  Balky  Mot&r 61 

Chapter  IX. 
Applying  Logic  to  Difficult  Starting 65 

Chapter  X. 
The  System  That  Is  Eliminating  the  Magneto 74 

""        Chapter  XI. 
Features  and  Care  of  Ignition  Systerrts 79 

Chapter  XII. 
The  Starter-Lighter  System  Analyzed 87 


CONTENTS— Continued 


PAGE 


Chapter  XIII. 
Operation  of  Eclipse-Bendix  Starter  Drive 96 

Chapter  XIV. 
Supreme  Importance  of  Battery  Care 101 

Chapter  XV. 
Clutch  Adjustments 107 

Chapter  XVI. 
Functions  of  Automobile  Transmissions Ill 

Chapter  XVII. 
Rear  Axle  Technology 118 

Chapter  XVIII. 
The  Differential   131 

Chapter  XIX. 
Care  and  Adjustment  of  Brakes 135 

Chapter  XX. 
Lubrication  Pointers  That  Have  Merit 154 

Chapter  XXI. 
Keeping  Up^Appearance  of  the  Car 158 

Chapter  XXII. 
Hints  on  Maintenance  and  Repairing 161 

Chapter  XXIII. 
Carbon :   Its  Source  and  Elimination 166 

Chapter  XXIV. 
Little  Things  That  Count  in  Car  Care 174 

Chapter  XXV. 
A  Few  Hints  to  the  Tourist 201 


FOREWORD. 

THERE  are  so  many  angles  to  the  modern 
automobile,  so  many  distinct  systems  com- 
bined to  make  up  the  complete  perfected 
car,  that  he  is  a  broad  man  indeed,  and  truly 
worthy  of  the  title  "Automobile  Expert"  who  is 
perfectly  familiar  with  all  of  the  various  phases 
of  motor  car  construction,  tare  and  repair. 

Feeling  that  this  is  the  case,  and  realizing  that 
he  is  not  of  the  broad  stock  that  can  grasp  fully 
each  of  many  fine  points  that  have  to  do  with  the 
proper  care  of  the  automobile,  the  editor  has  in 
the  present  work,  sought  out  from  the  current 
trade  press  the  most  apt  of  the  many  special 
articles  on  various  phases  of  motor  car  care,  each 
written  by  an  expert  in  his  one  particular  branch 
of  the  subject.  The  editor  has  confined  his  ef- 
forts to  weaving  the  assembled  matter  into  a  com- 
posite whole  that  covers  fully  the  broad  subject 
in  hand. 

Not  all  of  these  specialists,  highly  trained  as 
they  are,  are  gifted  with  the  knack  of  presenting 
highly  technical  matter  in  a  manner  that  is  not 
only  perfectly  understandable,  but  at  the  same 
time  interest  impelling,  to  the  average  non-tech- 
nical car  owner ;  nor  were  the  original  articles  all 
handled  from  the  same  viewpoint.  The  editor's 
work,  therefore,  has  consisted  chiefly  in  redraft- 
ing the  material  supplied  by  these  specialists  the 


2  Care  of  Automobiles. 

better  to  suit  it  for  his  present  needs,  and  in 
arranging  the  matter  in  some  sort  of  logical 
coherent  shape  so  that  the  reader  will  not  feel 
that  he  is  starting  a  new  book  with  the  beginning 
of  each  chapter. 

If,  then,  the  reader  finds  that  the  style  changes 
from  chapter  to  chapter;  if  one  subject  is  treated 
in  a  light,  almost  flippant  manner,  and  the  next 
in  a  ponderous,  deep  style,  be  happy  in  the  knowl- 
edge that  each  article  is  authoritive,  represent- 
ing a  deal  of  forethought  by  a  specialist  in  his 
subject.  What  is  lost  in  literary  style  is  fully 
compensated  for  in  the  truthfulness  and  reliabil- 
ity of  the  subject  matter. 

One  theorist,  perhaps,  with  a  gift  for  present- 
ing his  theories  m  readable  style,  could  present  a 
far  more  readable  work;  but  for  real  value  it 
never  could  compare  with  the  efforts  of  the  dozen 
or  more  specialists  whose  combined  efforts  have 
resulted  in  the  present  work. 

One  more  word:  In  this,  the  third  edition 
of  the  work,  the  chief  efforts  of  the  revisor 
have  been  directed  to  the  task  of  bringing  the 
volume  right  up  to  the  minute.  He  has  spared 
no  effort  necessary  to  give  his  readers  first-hand 
information  on  the  very  latest  practice — infor- 
mation that  is  not  covered  by  any  other  motor 
book. 

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CHAPTER    I. 

A  Word  on  the  Automobile  Engine. 

Heat  the  Real  Source  of  Its  Energy — How  the 
Heat  is  Generated  and  Disposed  of — Various 
Types  of  Modern  Motors  Described  and  Dis- 
cussed. 

A  MOTOR  CAR  involves  a  considerable  out- 
lay of  money,  and  for  that  reason  purchase 
should  be  made  intelligently.  The  buyer 
should  know  exactly  why  he  makes  a  particular 
choice.  He  should  not  take  the  salesman's  word 
alone.  On  the  contrary,  he  should  be  able  to  tell, 
of  his  own  knowledge,  whether  the  salesman 
speaks  from  conviction,  or  merely  from  en- 
thusiasm. 

Of  first  importance,  then,  the  buyer  should 
understand  that  an  automobile  motor  is  by  far 
the  most  important  part  of  a  motor  car,  and 
that  the  whole  question  of  the  car's  worth  de- 
pends upjbn  its  motor.  Next  in  importance,  the 
buyer  should  understand  that  all  automobile 
motors  are  heat  engines.  Regardless  of  their 
form  of  construction,  or  their  number  of  cylin- 
ders, all  automobile  motors  are  heat  engines. 
By  that  it  is  meant  that  heat  is  the  force  which 
furnishes  the  power  of  the  motors.  To  reach  an 
understanding  of  automobile  motors  it  is  first 
necessary  to  get  this  fundamental  fact  firmly 
fixed  in  mind. 

Gasoline  is  the,  fuel  which  supplies  the  heat. 
In  other  words,  gasoline  is  the  "raw  material" 
for  making  the  heat,  just  as  cotton  is  the  raw 
material  for  making  cloth. 

When  the  gasoline  is  taken  into  the  carburetor 
it  is  mixed  with  air  and  vaporized.  That  is,  it 
is  transformed  into  gas.  This  gas  is  then  taken 
into  the  cylinders,  and  by  means  of  an  electric 

(7) 


8  Care  of  Automobiles. 

spark  it  is  burned,  or,  as  we  generally  say,  it  is 
"exploded."  Gasoline  vapor  burns  so  very 
quickly  that  we  speak  of  the  transformation  as 
an  "explosion."  If  you  could  burn  a  stick  of 
stovewood  or  a  lump  of  coal  as  quickly  as  you 
can  a  quantity  of  gasoline,  they,  too,  would  "ex- 
plode." 

This  burning,  or  "exploding"  of  the  gasoline, 
creates  a  very  high  degree  of  A^a?— about  2500 
degrees  Fahrenheit.     Heat,  as  everyone  knows, 
expands,  thus  if  we  heat  a  length  of  metal  rod,' 
the  rod  expands  and  the  amount  of  expansion 
depends  directly,   within  certain  limits,   on  the 
degree   of   temperature   to  which   the   metal   is 
heated.     Similarly,  if  we  heat  a  quantity  of  air 
or  other  gas,  it  expands  according  to  the  amount 
of  heat  applied.    When,  therefore,  the  charge  is 
exploded    m    the    gas-charged    cylinder    of    the 
engme,  the  gas  is  expanded  considerably  and  it  is 
the  action  of  this  expanding  gas  against  the  top 
of  the  piston   which   drives   it  down  ;s  and   the 
piston  being  connected  to  the  crankshaft  causes 
that  part  to  rotate  and  this  rotation  in  turn  is 
transmitted  to  the  road  wheels.    It  is  then,  after 
all,  nothing  but  heat  which  causes  the  automo- 
bile to  move. 

At  the  end  of  the  power  stroke  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  2500  degrees  of  heat  derived  from 
that  charge  of  gasoline  is  gone,  used  up  in  the 
effort  necessary  to  drive  the  piston  downward. 

Still  more  of  it  was  carried  out  of  the  cylin- 
der with  the  exhaust  gases  when  the  exhaust 
valve  was  opened  at  the  bottom  of  the  piston 
stroke  and  the  remainder  was  lost  by  radiation 
through  the  cylinder  walls  whence  it  is  carried 
away  by  the  cooling  water.  In  the  typical  auto- 
mobile motor  about  25  per  cent  of  the  available 
heat  of  the  fuel  is  used  in  driving  the  piston,  the 
remainder  being  lost  through  the  exhaust 'and 


The  Automobile  Engine. 


the  cylinder  walls.  And  of  the  25  per  cent  that 
is  converted  into  useful  work,  another  fifth  is  lost 
through  friction  in  the  mechanism  itself,  so 
that,  roughly,  only  about  20  per  cent  of  the  power 
actually  available  in  the  gasoline  is  utilized  to 
drive  the  car  forward. 


Valve-in-Head  or   I-Head   Type 
of  Motor. 


"T"-Head  Type  of  Engine. 


When  the  piston  has  reached  the  bottom  of 
its  stroke,  a  valve  is  opened  which  permits  the 
spent  gases  to  escape  from  the  cylinder  into  the 
muffler  and  thence  to  the  atmosphere.  This 
valve,  which  is  actuated  by  a  cam  mounted  on 
a  camshaft  which  is  driven  at  half  the  crankshaft 
speed,  is  kept  open  until  the  piston  has  again 
reached  the  top  of  its  stroke  when  it  closes  and 
another  valve,  the  inlet  valve,  is  opened  by  an- 
other cam  mounted  on  the   same  shaft.     This 


10  Care  of  Automobiles. 

second  valve  opens  a  passage  from  the  carburetor 
to  the  cyhnder  and  is  kept  open  until  the  piston 
reaches  the  bottom  of  the  stroke  again,  the  piston 
in  the  meantime  sucking  in  a  charge  of  the  va- 
porized gasoline,  much  the  same  as  a  medical 
syringe  will  suck  up  a  quantity  of  liquid  when 
,the  plunger  is  pulled  out. 

When  the  bottom  of  the  stroke  is  again  reached 
the  inlet  valve  is  closed  and  there  being  no  further 
communication  with  the  air,  the  gas  contained  in 
the  cylinder  is  compressed  by  the  ascending 
piston,  to  be  ignited  by  the  spark  when  the  piston 
has  nearly  reached  the  top  of  its  stroke.  The 
cycl6  is  then  repeated  and  the  engine  operates  so 
long  as  gasoline  is  supplied  to  the  carburetor 
and  a  spark  is  produced  at  the  plug  points  at  the 
proper  interval  to  insure  ignition. 

So  far,  all  automobile  motors  are  alike ;  for  all 
modern  automobile  engines  operate  on  the  "four- 
cycle" or  Otto  cycle  principle.  Time  was  when 
a  different  type  of  motor,  operating  on  what  is 
known  as  the  "two-cycle"  principle  was  used  by 
a  few  manufacturers,  but  that  type  never  proved 
wholly  satisfactory  in  motor  car  service. 

Aside  from  the  number  of  cylinders,  the  most 
distinctive  features  characterizing  modern  auto- 
mobile motors  is  the  valve  arrangement. 

For  the  most  part,  automobile  manufacturers 
have  preferred  to  stick  to  the  "poppet"  valve 
motor ;  that  is  a  motor  with  valves  shaped  like  a 
mushroom,  with  a  conical  face  ground  to  fit  a 
recessed  face  formed  for  the  purpose  in  the  com- 
bustion chamber  of  the  motor.  Only  one  other 
valve  arrangement  has  made  any  considerable 
progress  in  this  country,  and  that  is  the  Knight 
motor  with  the  valve  operations  carried  out  by 
a  pair  of  sHding  sleeves  mounted  concentric  with 
the  piston  and  given  a  vertical  movement  which 
causes  them  to  cover  and  uncover  suitable  ports 


The  Automobile  Engine. 


11 


in  the  cylinder  walls  at  the  proper  time  by  means 
of  an  eccentric  carried  on  a  half  time  shaft. 

The  poppet  valve  motors  are  divided  into  four 
distinct  classes,  according  to  the  valve  arrange- 
ment, although  at  the  present  time  only  three  of 
these  classes  are  in  general  use  in  the  automobile 
field.  Of  the  three,  one,  the  T-head  type,  is  fast 
losing  ground.  The  four  classes  are  known  re- 
spectively «s   the    T-head    type;    L-head    type; 


"L"-Head  Type  of  Motor. 


Thead  or  "valve-in-the-head"  type  and  F-head 
type. 

The  T-head  type,  which  when  four  cylinder 
motors  first  began  to  grow  -in  popularity,  was  far 
and  away  the  most  generally  used,  has  the  inlet 
valve  of  each  cylinder  mounted  on  one  side  of 
the  motor  and  the  exhaust  valve  on  the  other 
side  so  that  the  cylinder  casting,  as  can  plainly 


12  Care  of  Automobiles. 

be  seen  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  resembles 
roughly  a  capital  "T."  The  complication  of  the 
arrangement  has  been  the  chief  cause  of  its 
abandonment,  for  it  involves  not  only  the  use  of 
two  camshafts,  one  at  either  side  of  the  motor, 
but  also  the  use  of  double  valve  pockets.  Doubling 
of  the  pockets  entails  added  complication  in  the 
casting  of  the  cylinders,  and  also  affords  a  greater 
area  of  exposed  surface  in  the  combusiion  cham- 
ber which  in  turn  entails  larger  heat  losses 
through  radiation.  It  moreover  results  in  a  de- 
sign that  does  not  lend  itself  readily  to  cleancut 
appearance  which  the  modern  motorist  demands 
in  his  car. 

The  L-head  type  of  motor,  on  the  other  hand, 
with  both  valves  on  the  one  side  of  the  cylinder 
so  that  the  cylinder  casting  resembles  the  letter 
"L"  avoids  tihe  duplication  of  the  camshaft  and 
valve  pockets  and  lends  itself  readily  to  full  en- 
closure of  the  valve  mechanism  giving  rise  tc  a 
cleaner  cut  motor,  as  to  appearance.  It  has  the 
additional  advantage  that  the  cool  incoming  gases 
tend  to  keep  the  exhaust  valve  at  a  moderate 
temperature  and  help  in  a  measure,  at  least,  to 
keep  the  valves  from  pitting  and  burning.  It  is 
far  and  away  the  simplest  of  the  four  arrange- 
ments and  as  a  matter  of  course,  is  the  one  which 
is  used  by  the  majority  of  present  day  manufac- 
turers. 

The  I-head  type  of  motor  is  without  valve 
pockets,  both  valves  being  positioned  in  the  head 
of  the  motor  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration. This  design  has  certain  virtues  all  of 
its  own ;  also  certain  disadvantages,  although 
drawbacks  do  not  offsQt  the  advantages  accruing 
to  the  type.  Certain  it  is  that  the  valve  arrange- 
ment permits  of  doing  away  with  the  pockets, 
reducing  the  area  through  which  radiation  can 
take  place  and  making  for  increased  speed  of 


The  Automobile  Engine.  13 

flame  propagation  which  spells  increased  power. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  valve  mechanism  itself  is 
more  complicated,  involving  the  use  of  overhead 
rockers  and  long  push  rods.  It  is  also  a  hard  type 
to  enclose.  Much  progress  has  been  made  by  the 
"valve-in-head"  engine  over  the  past  five  years. 
Present  types  are  fully  enclosed,  valve  parts  well 
lubricated  and  comparatively  quiet. 

The  F-head  motor  is  rarely  met  with  in  auto- 
mobile practice  although  until  lately  it  has  been 
used  almost  universally  in  motorcycle  motors.  It 
comprises  an  inlet -valve  mounted  in  a  valve 
pocket  directly  over  the  exhaust  valve  and  is  a 
cross  between  the  L-head  motor  and  the  "valve- 
in-the-head"  type.  Its  principal  advantage  ac- 
crues from  the  fact  that  larger  diameter  valves 
can  be  used  than  with  either  the  I-head  type  or 
the  L-head  type  and  a  corresponding  increase  in 
power  can,  theoretically,  be  counted  upon  for 
this  reason.  It  is  a  cool-running  type,  not  over- 
sensitive to  carbon  deposit,  and  is  finding  wide 
application  on  modern  cars. 

As  has  been  amply  set  forth,  each  type  of  motor 
has  its  own  peculiar  little  advantages  so  that  it 
is  a  hard  matter  even  for  the  expert  to  decide 
which  type  is  the  best;  a  great  deal  depends 
upon  the  service  to  which  the  car  is  to  be  put 
and  the  type  of  man  who  is  to  operate  it.  For  the 
speed-fiend,  for  instance,  or  the  man  who  puts 
gasoline  economy  above  every  other  feature,  tlie 
valve-in-the-head  motor  undoubtedly  will  not 
prove  disappointing;  on  the  other  hand,  for  the 
slow  careful  driver  who  is  looking  principally 
for  comfort  and  lack  of  complication,  the  L-head 
type  with  its  interchangeable  valves,  easily  ad- 
justed, will  be  found  best  suited  to  his  purposes. 

The  present  eight-cylinder  engine  is  built  in 
what  is  termed  V-form,  the  cylinders  being  ar- 
ranged in  two  sets  of  four  each,  which  make  an 


14 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


angle  of  90  degrees  to  each  other  and  outline 
the  letter  V.  The  V-type  engine  presents  a  very 
moderate  length,  resulting  in  a  somewhat  shorter 
hood  than  would  be  necessary  with  ^  six-cylinder 
engine  of  the  same  power,  and  also  a  somewhat 
roomier  body  with  the  same  wheel  base. 


Front  View  of  the  Cadillac  Eight-Cylinder  V  Engine. 

Makers  of  eight-cylinder  engines  claim  that  they 
exceed  the  six-cylinder  in  flexibility,  uniform- 
ity of  torque  and  freedom  from  vibration  and 
even  if  equalled  in  power  they  possess  the  same 
economy,  easy  turning  length  and  light  weight 
as  in  the  light  four.  Power  for  power  the  eight 
seems  to  possess  quite  an  advantage  over  the  six 


Multi-Cylinder  V-Type  Engine.      15 

in  the  above  respects.  They  are  very  smooth  in 
operation,  as  there  are  very  Httle  lapses  during 
impulses,  eliminating  the  laboring  jerks  and  jars. 
In  an  engine  of  this  type  there  are  eight  power 
strokes  in  two  revolutions,  or  four  in  one  revolu- 
tion of  the  crank  shaft,  or  one  explosion  every  90 
degrees  of  crank  shaft  movement.  Each  explo- 
sion is  smaller  than  in  a  six-cylinder  engine  and 
as  the  crank  shaft  is  shorter  and  has  fewer  arms 
the  anno\nng  crankshaft  vibrations  are  eliminated. 

There  is  another  advantage  possessed  by  this 
type  of  engine  of  which  very  little  has  been  men- 
tioned, and  this  is  in  respect  to  self -starting. 
Roughly  speaking,  an  engine  of  this  type  need 
have  but  half  the  piston  area  of  a  four  of  equal 
stroke  and  power.  Therefore,  the  starting  motor 
must  overcome  a  compression  resistance  that  is 
about  half  that  encountered  in  the  four-cylinder 
engine,  tending  to  reduce  the  size  of  and  con- 
sumption of  the  starting  motor  and  also  to  reduce 
those  difficulties  which  pertain  to  the  efficiency 
of  a  single  unit  starting  and  lighting  system. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  best  method  of  at- 
taching and  connecting  rods  and  one  finds  two 
methods  in  vogue.  They  are  either  placed 
side  by  side  or  one  is  forked  and  the  other 
operates  on  a  bushing  within  the  fork  of  the 
former.  There  are  also  two  camshaft  construc- 
tions, one  having  eight  cams  and  the  other  six- 
teen, while  the  valves  may  either  be  operated 
direct  or  through  rocker  arms.  With  the  con- 
necting rods  placed  side  by  side  it  is  necessary 
to  stagger  the  cylinders  to  center  them  with  the 
connecting  rods. 

Lubrication  seems  to  present  another  problem 
as  this  seems  to  be  divided  between  pressure  feed 
and  splash,  and  combinations  of  both.  Both 
forced  and  thermo  syphon  cooling  systems  are 
also  used,  while  with  the  former  opinions  also 


16  Care  of  Automobiles, 

vary  as  to  whether  one  or  two  pumps  should  be 
used.  In  some  cases  the  intake  manifold  is  water- 
jacketed,  while  the  manifolds  are  almost  univer- 
sally placed  on  the  inside  of  the  V. 

So  much  for  the  eight-cylinder  engine.  Its 
development  during  the  past  five  years  has  been 
most  rapid  and  to  date  there  are  no  less  than  a 
dozen  different  makes  of  eight-cylinder  engines 
and  a  score  or  more  of  cars  powered  with  them. 
Among  the  best  known  of  the  motors  are  the 
Buda,  Perkins,  Ferro,  Ross,  Herschell-Spillman, 
Jenks,  Davis  and  Stearns.  Of  these  by  far  the 
greater  number  do  not  differ  materially  from 
Cadillac  and  King  practice,  although  detail 
cylinder  motor,  that  there  is  not  at  least  one  cylia- 
der  turning  the  crankshaft.  Before  one  cylinder 
is  completely  out,  the  next  in  firing  order  has 
fired  and  carried  on  the  work. 

Just  as  the  eight  uses  a  standard  shape  of 
four-cylinder  crankshaft,  so  does  the  twelve  or 
"twin  six"  employ  the  familiar  type  of  six-cylin- 
der crankshaft  with  its  throws  set  at  angles  of 
120  degrees.  This  difference  in  crank  angle,  how- 
ever, makes  it  advisable  to  set  the  opposite  blocks 
of  cylinders  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  instead  of 
the  90  degrees  angle  usually  found  in  the  eight. 
The  twelve  is  thus  inherently  a  narrower  motor 
than  the  eight  and  this  feature  presents  several 
interesting  points  in  its  favor  The  sharper  an- 
gle between  the  cylinder  blocks  permits  the  motor 
accessories,  such  as  the  magneto,  carburetor, 
water  pump,  electric  starter  and  dynamo,  to  be 
placed  in  convenient  locations  outside  of  the  "V" 
and  thus  leaves  the  space  between  the  cylinder 
blocks  clear  for  free  inspection,  adjustment  and 
grinding  of  the  valves.  The  usual  practice  with 
the  eight,  on  the  other  hand,  is  to  crowd  the  "V" 
with  these  necessary  accessories,  rendering  the 
valves,  when  operated  from  a  single  camshaft, 


Multi-Cylinder  V-Type  Engine.     17 

quite  inaccessible. 

Furthermore,  the  narrower  motor  permits  of 
the  use  of  a  more  accessible  steering  gear  and 
allows  the  frame  to  be  narrowed  so  that  the 
radius  required  for  turning  is  reduced  by  a  con- 
siderable amount.  And  then,  because  for  a  given 
power  motor,  the  cylinders  in  eaph  block  of  a 
twelve  motor  are  smaller  than  in  a  six,  each  im- 
pulse imparts  less  strain  to  the  crankshaft,  which, 
therefore,  can  be  made  lighter  and  a  single  cen- 
ter bearing  is  generally  found  adequate. 

In  its  structural  features,  aside  from  those 
which  have  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
reader,  the  twelve  does  not  vary  materially  from 
the  more  common  eight. 


V 

CHAPTER     II. 
The  16-Valve  Motor  and  the  Knight  Type. 

NOW  comes  another  valve  arrangement — an 
idea,  by  the  way,  which  the  motor  car 
designer  has  taken  from  the  designer  of 
high  speed  motorcycles — the  "duplicate  valve 
motor."  That  is  to  say,  a  motor  with  two  inlet 
valves  and  two  exhaust  valves  for  each  cylinder, 
so  that  in  the  four-cylinder  motor  there  are  six- 
teen valves  in  all  instead  of  the  customary  eight 
valves,  and  in  the  six-cylinder  engine  of  duplicate 
valve  design  there  are,  of  course,  twenty-four 
valves  in  all. 

It  has  long  been  a  recognized  fact  that  the 
efficiency  of  any  motor  depends  upon  two  fea- 
tures more  than  any  others — ^e  size  of  the  valve 
opening  and  the  speed  with  which  the  valves 
close  after  the  intake  and  exhaust  strokes.  Us- 
ing'single  intake  and  exhaust  valves,  their  diam- 
eters are  necessarily  restricted  by  the  diameter 
of  the  cylinders,  and  it  has  been  found  impossi- 
ble to  fit  valves  sufficiently  large  to  permit  of 
absolutely  free  ingress  and  egress  of  the  gases. 
Another  drawback  of  the  single  valve  arrange- 
ment is  the  fact  that  increasing  the  diameter  of 
the  valve  in  order  to  permit  of  freer  passage  of 
the  gases  increases  the  tendency  to  warp  to  a 
marked  degree,  and  to  counteract  this  the  valve 
heads  have  to  be  made  correspondingly  heavy; 
a  fact  which  not  only  makes  for  increased  wear 
and  tear  on  the  whole  valve  mechanism,  but  also 
for  sluggish  action  and  noise. 

The  adoption  of  double  valves  eliminates 
these  difficulties  at  one  sweep.  For  instance, 
two  inlet  and  two  exhaust  valves  in  the  case  of 
a  typical  16-valve  four-cylinder  motor  give  a 
valve  opening  50  per  cent  greater  than  in  the 

(18) 


The  i6-Valve  Motor.  19 

case  of  the  single  valve  arrangement,  the  valves 
in  the  duplicate  arrangement  each  being  of 
moderate  diameter  and  weight.  Quite  naturally, 
their  light  weight  springs  permit  of  instantaneous, 
snappy  action,  which  is  one  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  sixteen-valve  motor. 

paving,  by  means  of  this  special  valve  ar- 
rangement, done  awa}'  with  much  of  the  throt- 
tling of  the  gases  common  to  the  more  orthodox 
type,  it  is  logical  to  expect  a  more  efficient  motor, 
each  intake  stroke  drawing  in  a  full  charge  of 
clean,  combustible  vapor,  and  each  exhaust 
stroke  expelling  every  last  atom  of  the  spent 
charge  from  the  swept  volume,  leaving  the  cylin- 
ders approximately  clean  for  the  next  charge. 

The  result  is  a  motor  as  nearly  100  per  cent 
efficient  as  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  been  able 
to  devise.  It  exceeds  in  flexibility  the  average 
multi-cylinder  motor,  and  is  unequaled  in  swift 
acceleration  and  smooth  operation,  while  at  the 
same  time  retaining  the  economy  and  reliability 
which  have  always  been  the  cardinal  features 
of  the  four-cylinder  design. 

It  is  needless,  perhaps,  to  add  that  this  type 
of  motor  has  been  thoroughly  tried  out,  having 
run  the  speed  gamut  and  been  found  not  lacking 
in  the  attributes  that  make  for  speed  as  well  as 
stamina  and  reliability.  While,  as  was  before 
pointed  out,  the  duplicate  valve  system  is  in 
reality  an  adaptation  of  the  ideas  that  have  made 
the  American  motor  cycle  preeminently  the  fast- 
est two-wheeled  vehicle  in  the  world,  the  valve 
arrangement  as  applied  to  the  car  motor  was  first 
seen  here  on  the  Peugeot  racing  machine  which 
came  over  and  took  the  laurels  on  practically  all 
of  the  American  speedways  a  couple  of  years 
ago.  The  development  of  the  type  by  Stutz, 
White,  Drexel  and  Pierce-Arrow  is  directly  trace- 


20  Care  of  Automobiles. 

able  to  the  good  showing  made  by  the  French 
machines  at  that  time. 

The  good  old  poppet  valve  motor  has  stood  the 
test  of  time  and  has  become  so  firmly  intrenched 
in  the  hearts  of  motorists  everywhere  that  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  ever  will  be  displaced.  Three  or 
four  years  ago,  following  the  successful  intro- 
duction of  the  Knight  sleeve  valve  motor,  there 
was  a  veritable  flood  of  motors  in  which  the 
poppet  valve  was  displaced  by  valves  either  of 
the  sleeve,  rotary  or  piston  type ;  but  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Knight  motor  alone,  none  of  these 
has  withstood  the  test  of  time. 

In  the  Knight  engine  the  valve  functions  are 
performed  by  two  ported  sleeves,  one  within  the 
other,  which  are  interposed  between  the  piston 
and  the  cylinder  wall,  the  clearance  between  the 
sleeves,  the  wall  and  the  piston  being  very  slight. 

These  two  sleeves,  which  replace  the  valves, 
are  reciprocated  by  means  of  an  eccentric  shaft. 
This  shaft,  in  the  case  of  the  four-cylinder  mo- 
tor, carries  eight  eccentrics,  each  eccentric  oper- 
ating one  of  the  eight  sleeves  through  the  inter- 
mediary of  short  connecting  rods  or  links.  The 
detachable  head  of  the  cylinder  is  made  of  spe- 
cial design,  as  is  plainly  indicated  in  the  cross- 
sectional  view,  to  permit  of  the  sleeves  sliding 
up  past  the  combustion  chamber  and  effecting 
an  efficient  gas  seal. 

The  movement  of  the  two  sleeves,  which  con- 
trol the  flow  of  the  gases  to  and  from  the  cylin- 
der, may  be  described  as  follows :  Referring  to 
the  plate  which  represents  the  timing  of  the 
Steams-Knight  four-cylinder  engine,  Position  1 
shows  the  inlet  starting  to  open,  while  No.  2 
shows  the  inlet  fully  open,  in  this  case  the  outer 
sleeve  has  moved  downward  and  the  inner  sleeve 
upward  until  the  ports  in  both  coincide  with  the 
cylinder  port.     Position  3  shows  the  inlet  clos- 


The  i6-Valve  Motor. 


21 


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22  Care  of  Automobiles. 

ing,  and  4  the  top  of  the  compression  stroke. 
Position  5  shows  the  end  of  the  power  stroke 
and  the  exhaust  valve  beginning  to  open.  Here 
the  sleeves  again  shift  to  bring  the  ports  in  line, 
this  time,  however,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
combustion  chamber. 

The  claims  for  the  Knight  motor  are  not  only 
absolute  silence,  due  to  the  absence  of  tappet 
and  valve  action  noises,  but  absolute  precision 
in  valve  timing,  freedom  from  valve  pitting, 
warping  and  sticking,  and  less  wear  and  tear 
coupled  with  the  absence  of  valve  pockets  and 
consequent  greater  power  for  the  same  bore  and 
stroke. 


CHAPTER    III. 

Horse-power — Its  Definition  and  Determi- 
nation. 

Just  What  is  Meant  by  the  Term  as  Applied  to 
Any  Prime  Mover  and  Why  Its  Exact  Deter- 
mination is  Difficult — Modern  Testing  Practice 
— The  Use  of  Horse-power  Formulae. 

WHAT  is  horse-power?  This  question, 
while  well  understood  by  engineers  in 
general,  is  a  hard  problem  for  the  begin- 
ner to  grasp.  Horse-power  provides  a  never 
failing  source  of  discussion  for  him.  No  other 
term  in  his  vocabulary  is  so  misunderstood,  or 
has  so  many  interpretations,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  is  a  subject  of  vital  importance  to  him, 
for  the  reason  that  it  affects  his  comfort,  his 
pride  or  his  bank  account. 

The  purpose  of  this  article  will  be  to  enlighten 
him  on  this  subject  and  at  the  same  time  show 
how  the  horse-power  of  an  automobile  engine 
can  be  approximated  very  closely  by  the  S.  A. 
E.  formula,  giving  an  example  as  well  as  a  table. 
The  table  comprises  cylinder  diameters  of  2^4 
to  6  and  engines  having  1,  2,  4,  6  or  8  cylinders. 
No  mathematical  data  is  used,  to  avoid  compli- 
cations. 

The  definition  of  the  word  "horse-power"  as 
applied  to  a  motor  car  engine  is  not  understood 
by  the  average  automobile  owner  or  driver.  There 
are  many  laymen  who  think  that  by  horse-power 
is  meant  the  average  load  which  a  horse  can  pull 
in  continued  service.  This  is  not  .true,  however, 
as  the  pulling  power  of  horses  varies  and  no  defi- 
nite point  could  be  reached  in  this  way.  It  is 
evident  that  a  large  horse  is  capable  of  pulling  a 

(23) 


24  Care  of  Automobiles, 

greater  load  in  continued  service  than  a  smaller 
animal. 

The  term  "horse-power"  was  first  used  by 
James  Watt,  after  numerous  tests  of  the  load 
which  the  average  horse  could  pull  in  continued 
service  and  a  constant  derived  therefrom,  which 
will   be  discussed  later. 

Horse-power  as  a  technical  term  has  a  very 
definite  meaning.  It  is  defined  as  the  rate  of 
doing  work.  Work,  in  turn,  is  the  product  of  a 
force  and  the  distance  it  moves.  Thus  horse- 
power is  force  times  distance  divided  by  time. 
It  is  expressed  in  units  implying  these  three 
quantities :  pounds,  per  foot,  per  minute.  One 
horse-power  is.  equivalent  to  33,000  foot  pounds 
per  minute,  that  is,  a  power  which  can  lift  33,000 
pounds  one  foot  in  one  minute,  or  1,000  pounds 
33  feet  in  one  minute,  or  1  pound  33,000  feet  in 
one  minute,  or  1  pound  one  foot  in  1/550  second. 

In  a  motor  car  engine  power  is  developed  by 
the  burning  and  consequent  expansion  of  the 
gasoline  mixture  in  the  combustion  chamber. 
The  expansion  results  in  a  force  exerted  on  the 
piston  head,  the  travel  of  the  piston  on  its  stroke 
gives  the  distance,  and  the  number  of  revolutions 
per  minute  of  the  crankshaft  adds  the  time  fac- 
tor. Given  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square 
inch  on  the  cylinder,  the  stroke  in  feet  or  inches, 
and  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute;  the 
horse-power  developed  in  a  gasoline  motor  can 
easily  be  computed.  Although  the  last  two  quan- 
tities are  easy  enough  to  obtain,  the  first,  unfor- 
tunately, cannot  be  had  without  the  use  of  deli- 
cate and  costly  instruments. 

To  determine  the  power  actually  developed  by 
a  motor,  numerous  methods  can  be  used,  but  all 
depend  upon  the  absorption  and  incidental  rneas- 
urement  of  the  power,  as  by  a  friction  brake, 
electric  generator,  a  water  pump  or  fan.    As  the 


Horsepower.  25 

earliest  and  best  known  of  these  the  friction  or 
prony  brake  method  may  be  described.  Like  all 
others  it  depends  upon  the  definition  of  force 
times  distance  divided  by  time.  The  application 
is  generally  quite  familiar.  A  brake  band  or 
shoe  is  applied  to  the  fly-wheel  and  prevented 
from  rotating  with  the  fly-wheel  by  weights  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  the  lever  arm  attached  to 
the  brake  band.  The  weight  or  the  length  of 
the  lever  arm  is  adjusted  until  the  weight  is  in 
equilibrium,  tending  neither  to  rotate  with  the 
fly-wheel  or  to  drop  under  the  force  of  gravity. 
The  weight  then  gives  the  force,  the  length  of 
the  arm  the  distance,  and  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions the  time  factor,  necessary  for  calculating 
the  horse-power. 

In  many  automobile  plants  where  motors  are 
made  in  large  quantities,  the  run  in  test  is  re- 
garded as  a  necessity  and  it  is  a  simple  expedient 
to  attach  a  fan  to  the  fly-wheel  in  place  of  the 
clutch,  and,  if  the  fan  is  properly  devised,  it  will 
limit  the  speed  of  the  motor  to  that  which  should 
obtain  in  actual  service,  when  the  motor  is  doing 
its  accustomed  work.  The  fan  requires  no  atten- 
tion; it  offers  a  constant  resistance,  so  long  as 
the  speed  of  the  motor  is  maintained  constant, 
and  if  the  speed  changes  do  creep  in  they  will 
indicate  that  some  adjustment  is  necessary  to 
either  mixture  or  ignition  system,  but  there  will 
be  no  damage  done,  even  if  the  adjustments  are 
not  made.  This  form  of  dynamometer  is  eco- 
nomical ;  it  takes  up  almost  no  added  space,  and 
it  is,  in  first  cost,  at  the  bottom  of  the  list.  In 
some  instances  this  fan  dynamometer  has  been 
fitted  with  a  tachometer  or  speed  indicator,  by 
means  of  which  the  power  delivered  may  be 
noted  by  ascertaining  the  speed  and  comparing 
it  with  a  chart  of  power  for  speed  as  determined 
by  previous  calibration. 


26  Care  of  Automobiles. 

In  large  automobile  factories  the  balanced  elec- 
tric system  seems  to  have  considerable  advantage. 
There  may  be  a  number  of  sets  of  these  ma- 
chines, and  all  that  is  required  to  satisfy  condi- 
tions is  to  have  the  machines  in  pairs.  One 
machine  (of  each  pair)  is  driven  by  an  engine 
as  a  dynamo,  which  furnishes  current  to  the 
other,  which  as  a  motor  drives  the  second  engine 
which  is  getting  its  "run  in"  test.  The  dynamo 
loads  the  engine  which  furnishes  the  power, 
which  is  electrically  transmitted  to  drive  the 
second  engine,  which  is  being  run  in  during  this 
period  of  time. 

There  is  still  another  possibility.  If  the  engine 
to  test  is  connected  to  a  centrifugal  pump  and 
the  pump  in  turn  by  piping  to  a  reservoir,  the 
power  required  to  pump  the  water  to  the  reser- 
voir may  be  adjusted  to  equal  the  ability  of  the 
motor  to  be  tested  and  the  work  done  in  the 
process  turned  to  good  account. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  motor  testing 
question  has  other  angles  besides  the  one  which 
is  being  considered  here;  investigations  of  the 
internal  conditions  are  also  taken  into  account. 

Obtaining  the  cylinder  pressure  in  pounds  per 
square  inch,  that  is,  the  force  exerted  upon  the 
piston  by  the  expansion  of  the  gas,  unfortunately 
cannot  be  obtained  without  tlie  use  of  delicate 
and  costly  instruments,  as  mentioned  above.  For 
this  reason  a  formula  was  adopted  by  the  So- 
ciety of  Automotive  Engineers  which  is  termed 
the  S.  A.  E.  formula,  and  which  was  intended 
to  approzimate  the  horse-power  of  automobile 
engines  very  closely.  This  formula  received 
such  a  favorable  reception  by  both  manufactur- 
er and  user  that  its  continued  use  has  been 
assured.  Before  its  appearance  there  had  been 
a  long-felt  need  of  some  connecting  link  between 
the  size  and  probable  capacity  of  the  various 


Horsepower.  27 

motors.  Most  objections  to  this  formula  are 
based  upon  the  idea  that  it  is  to  determine  once 
and  for  all  the  power  which  a  given  motor  is 
capable  of  developing.  This  is  not  true,  as  the 
horse-power  of  a  gasoline  engine  cannot  be  com- 
puted exactly  from  its  dimensions  by  any  formula 
whatsoever,  no  matter  how  intricate  and  learned 
in  appearance. 

The  principal  feature  considered  in  this  for- 
mula is  simplicity,  and  this  is  an  unquestionable 
advantage.  It  would  be  impossible  to  simplify 
it  any  further  and  still  obtain  the  least  approach 
to  the  horse-power  rating.  There  is,  however, 
one  short  cut,  which  might  not  appear  to  the 
use.  For  instance,  the  formula  reads :  H.  P.=  -^ 
which  in  reality  is  the  same  and  equal  to  H.  P.  = 
.4  D^N,  as  will  be  explained  later. 

In  the  formula — 

D  =  Diameter  of  cylinder  in  inches. 
N  =  Number  of  cylinders. 
2.5  is  a  constant  based  upon  a  mean  effec- 
tive pressure  of  70  pounds  per  square  in. 
and  a  piston  speed  of  1,000  ft.  per  min. 

D^  is  read  as  the  diameter  squared,  and  to 
square  any  number  is  to  multiply  it  by  itself; 
that  is  to  say,  the  square  of  2  is  equal  to  2X2=4, 
or  4X4=16,  or  16X16=256.  Likewise  any 
number  multiplied  by  itself  will  give  the  square 
of  that  number. 

In  using  the  formula,  remembering  that  the 
povv^er  of  a  motor  is  in  proportion  to  the  square 
of  the  cylinder  dianteter,  the  formula  may  be 
written  as  follows : 

Horse-power=Diameter  of  cylinder  in  inches 
squared,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  cylinders 
contained  on  the  engine  and  divided  by  the  con- 
stant 2.5;  or  to  transpose  the  formula.  Horse- 
power =  .4  times  the  diameter  of  cylinder  in 


28 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


inches  squared,    multiplied    by    the    number    of 
cylinders. 

Citing,  for  example,  a  four-cylinder  motor  with 
a  cylinder  diameter  of  four  inches,  and  proceed 
to  calculate  the  horse-power  of  the  engine. 


H.  P.= 


2.5 


=25.6  or  .4X4X4X4=25.6 


For  six  cylinders,  four-inch  cylinder  diameter — 

H.  P.=  ^  =38.4  or  .4X4X4X6=38.4 
And  again  for  an  eight-cylinder  engine — 
H.  P.=  —  =51.2  or  .4X4X4X8=51.2 


A   iypicai  Automobile  Motor  icsting  itaiiu. 

Using  precisely  the  same  method  the  horse- 
power of  any  motor  (according  to  this  empirical 
formula)  may  be  approximated.  Still  further 
convenience  may  be  had  %  the  use  of  a  table 
such  as  the  accompanying  one,  especially  for 
fractional  values  of  the  bore.  This  table  is  in  the 
main  self-explanatory,  but  a  few  features  may 
be  pointed  out.  The  values  are  given  so  close  to- 
gether that  intermediate  values  may  be  found  by 
interpolation.     Thus  4Vi8-inch  is  half-way  be- 


Horsepower. 


29 


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30  Care  of  Automobiles. 

tween  4  and  4%,  and  consequently  the  power  of 
a  4Vie-inch  four-cylinder  motor  is  between  that 
of  a  4  and  4 V^ -inch  motor. 

For  example,  we  will  take  these  three  cylinder 
diameters  in  order  to  show  the  interpolation  is 
carried  out.  We  must  first  find  the  difference 
between  the  4  and  4%-inch  motors.  Referring 
to  the  table,  a  4i/^-inch  four-cylinder  motor  is 
rated  at  27.20  H.  P.,  while  the  4-inch  is  rated  at 
25.60  H.  P.  Now,  subtracting  this  from  the  for- 
mer, we  get  1.60  H.  P.  Half  of  this  sum  added 
to  the  power  of  the  4-inch  motor  will  give  us  the 
power  of  4Vi6-inch  motor,  thus:  1.60-^2-|-25.60 
=26.40  H.  P.  In  precisely  the  same  manner  any 
other  size  in  between  those  listed  can  be  found. 

As  horse-power  by  this  formula  is  proportional 
to  the  square  of  the  cylinder  diameter,  doubling 
this  multiplies  by  four  and  halving  it  divides  by 
four.  Applying  this  to  the  table,  the  power  of 
a  two-inch 'cylinder  will  be  one- fourth  of  the 
power  of  a  four-inch  cylinder,  and  the  power 
of  a  seven-inch  cylinder  will  be  four  times  that 
of  a  31/2  or  19.60  H.  P. 

As  a  final  criticism  of  the  formula,  and  a  warn- 
ing against  its  too  confident  use,  it  will  suffice 
to  mention  that  it  tends  to  overrate  small  motors 
and  underrate  large  motors.  This  really  makes 
very  little  difference,  for  no  one  is  interested  in 
a  close  comparison  of  a  three-inch  and  a  six-inch 
motor,  as  he  is  of  one  more  nearly  the  same 
size  and  within  the  variation  of  an  inch  or  so 
in  the  diameter,  the  formula  is  reasonably  ac- 
curate. Empirical  formula  will  avail  up  to  a 
certain  point  and  within  certain  explored  limits. 
In  a  motor,  for  illustration,  the  formula  will  work 
very  well  indeed  if  the  cylinder  diameter  is  with- 
in the  domain  found  to  conform  to  the  conditions 
which  rendered  the  formula  possible. 


CHAPTER     IV. 

The  Fuel  Feed  and  the  Carburetor. 

Various  Methods  of  Conducting  Gasoline  From 
Tank  to  Motor — Carbiiretion  in  Theory  and 
Practice. 

THE  office  of  the  carburetor  is  that  of  chang- 
ing liquid  gasoline  into  an  explosive  mix- 
ture, and  the  function  of  this  is  to  bring 
a  quantity  of  air  in  contact  with  a  spray  of  gaso- 
line in  correct  proportion  for  complete  combus- 
tion. The  evaporation  of  the  gasoline  as  it 
mixes  with  the  air  forms  the  explosive  mixture 
which  is  introduced  into  the  cylinders  of  the 
motor  when  the  inlet  valves  open. 

A  carburetor,  in  order  to  handle  a  motor 
properly  under  all  conditions,  must  supply  a 
uniform  mixture  at  all  engine  speeds,  that  is,  at 
all  points  of  the  throttle  opening.  In  other 
words,  the  carburetor  must  take  raw  gasoline 
and  mix  it  with  the  proper  amount  of  air  under 
any  condition  demanded  by  the  motor,  and  in 
performing  this  delicate  task  the  carburetor 
must,  of  course,  be  adjusted  carefully  to  give 
good  results.  If  the  engine  were  to  run  at  a  con- 
stant speed  all  the  time  this  would  be  a  very  sim- 
ple problem,  providing  the  load  did  not  vary. 

Gasoline  is  carried  in  a  tank  located  either  in 
the  body  or  at  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis.  It  is 
supplied  to  the  carburetor  by  one  of  four 
methods  in  general  use: 

1.  Gravity  feed. 

2.  Pressure  feed. 

3.  Combination  of  pressure  and  gravity  feed. 

4.  Vacuum  feed. 

(31) 


32 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


Fi».  1.    G™»itT  Feed— Gasoline  fio«f  from  t»nk  to  the  Carbnretor  by  gravity. 

In  the  first  system  (Fig.  1)  the  tank  is 
mounted  considerably  above  the  carburetor  so 
that  the  gasoHne  will  flow  naturally.  The  tank 
may  either  be  placed  in  the  cowl  of  the  body 
or  under  the  front  seats,  if  the  carburetor  is 
placed  low  enough  to  insure  an  easy  flow. 

In  the  pressure  feed  system  (Fig.  2)  the  tank 
located  at  the  rear  of  the  chassis,  and  either  the 
pressure  of  the  exhaust  or  air  pressure  are  used 
to  force  the  gasoline  to  the  carburetor. 

The  third  system  (Fig.  3)  is  a  combination  of 
the  above  types,  having  the  tank  located  at  the 
rear  and  an  auxiliary  tank  located  in  the  cowl 
or  attached  to  the  engine  or  dash  under  the  hood. 
The  gasoline  is  forced  under  pressure  to  the 
small  tank  from  which  it  flows  by  gravity  to  the 
carburetor. 


Fig.    2.      Pressure  Fuel    Feed    System. 


The  Fuel  Feed.  33 

In  the  vacuum  feed  system  (Fig.  4)  the  main 
tank  is  located  at  the  rear  of  the  chassis,  while 
the  suction  in  the  intake  pipe  is  used  to  draw 
gasoline  into  a  small  tank  on  the  engine,  from 
which  it  flows  by  gravity  to  the  carburetor. 

This  vaporization  of  raw  gasoline  may  be  ac- 
complished in  two  ways,  by  heat  or  by  vacuum ; 
vaporization  due  to  pressure  reduction  is  dis- 
tinguished from  vaporization  caused  by  heat. 
In  the  vacuum  method  vaporization  is  only 
partly  complete,  no  matter  how  far  the  process 
of  pressure  reduction  is  carried,  since  that  part 
of  the  fuel  which  vaporizes  does  so  through  the 
abstraction  of  heat  from  the  remainder,  which 
becomes  constantly  colder  until  finally  the  tem- 
perature is  so  low  that  vaporization  ceases  until 
heat  is  supplied  from  some  outside  source. 
When  vaporization  is  brought  about  entirely  by 
heat  from  an  outside  source,  the  degree  to 
which  it  may  be  carried  depends  wholly  on  the 
amount  of  heat  supplied,  since  the  temperature 
of  the  liquid  is  being  constantly  raised  to  or 
maintained  at  the  proper  point. 

In  practice  neither  of  the  above  principles  are 
carried  to  the  limit,  but  both  act  together. 

The  reduced  pressure  due  to  motor  suction 
causes  vaporization  with  a  lowering  of  the  tem- 
perature, and  the  heat  of  the  air  tends  to  cause 
vaporization  through  the  transfer  of  heat  from 
itself  to  the  liquid.  Each  of  these  actions  assist 
the  other.  The  air  supplying  heat  to  the  liquid 
as  it  cools  by  vaporization  under  reduced  pres- 
sure and  the  reduction  in  temperature  due  to 
pressure  reduction,  facilitating  the  transfer  of 
heat  from  the  air  to  the  liquid. 

A  carburetor  consists  of  two  parts,  one  termed 
the  float  chamber,  or  bowl,  and  the  other  the 
choke  tube,  or  mixing  chamber  (Fig.  7).  Gaso- 
line from  the  main  tank  passes  to  the  float  cham- 


34  Care  of  Automobiles. 

ber  (Fig.  7)  through  a  needle  valve  and  strainer 
which  regulates  the  amount  of  gasoline  entering 
the  carburetor.  The  function  of  this  float  is  to 
maintain  a  constant  level  of  gasoline  in  its  own 
chamber  and  the  chamber  in  which  the  nozzle 
or  jet  is  located.  The  choke  tube  accommodates 
this  nozzle  and  allows  a  stream  of  air  to  pass 
around  it  when  the  piston  is  traveling  downward 
on  the  suction  stroke.  When  air  rushes  up 
around  this  nozzle,  it  draws  with  it  a  certain 
amount  of  sprayed  gasoline,  and  the  mixture  of 
gasoline  and  air  on  the  sides  of  the  intake  mani- 
fold becomes  a  gaseous  mixture.  A  small  but- 
terfly valve  located  near  the  top  of  this  choke 
tube  and  connected  with  the  throttle  lever  on 
the  steering  wheel  controls  the  amount  of  mix- 
ture entering  the  cylinders. 

From  what  has  been  mentioned  above,  the 
readers  should  now  understand  the  principle  of 
carburetion  and  the  action  of  the  carburetor. 
A  good  portion  of  the  carburetor  troubles  will 
be  taken  up  in  detail  and  may  be  listed  in  order 
of  importance  as  follows: 

1.  Stoppage  of  gasoline  supply. 

2.  Water  in  the  gasoline. 

3.  Freezing  of  the  carburetor. 

4.  Carburetor  flooding. 

5.  Nozzle  choked. 

6.  Excessive   air   temperature. 

7.  Carburetor  adjustment. 

The  above  troubles  will  be  mentioned  here  to 
complete  this  subject. 

1.  Stoppage  of  the  gasoline  supply.  This  is 
due  to  empty  tank,  clogged  supply  pipe,  air-bound 
supply  pipe  or  leak  in  supply  pipe,  while  in 
addition  to  this  the  flow  may  be  stopped,  due 
to  the  freezing  of  the  carburetor  and  a  sticking 
float.     As  mentioned  previously,  this  can  be  de- 


The  Fuel  Feed.  35 

tected  by  trying  to  flood  the  carburetor,  as  some- 
times this  is  caused  by  dirt  which  obstructs  the 
filter  gauge  at  the  inlet  to  the  float  valve.  If 
this  does  eliminate  the  trouble,  be  sure  to  ex- 
amine the  pipe  connections  and  tank,  as  all  leaks 
in  the  pressure  system  will  cause  a  stoppage  of 
gasoline  flow,  while  an  air-bound  pipe  will  also 
do  this  in  the  gravity  system.  See  that  the  filler 
cap  vent  hole  is  not  clogged,  as  this  causes  the 
pipe  to  become  air-bound  in  the  gravity  system. 
Leaking  air  joints  in  pressure  system  can  be  de- 
tected by  putting  a  light  mixture  of  soap  and 
water  over  the  various  connections;  if  bubbles 
show,  there  is  a  leak.  Tighten  connections  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  pressure. 

2.  Water  in  the  gasoline  is  detected  by  the 
motor  running  and  stopping  and  running  in  fits 
and  starts.  To  determine  if  there  is  water  in  the 
gasoline,  draw  a  small  quantity  from  carburetor 
or  sediment  bulb  on  gasoline  tank.  Gasoline  put 
into  the  tank  should  always  be  strained  through 
a  fine  screen,  which  will  separate  this  water.  This 
fine  screen  will  serve  a  double  purpose,  in  catch- 
ing any  particles  of  dirt  and  excluding  all  water 
which  the  gasoline  may  contain. 

3.  Freezing  of  the  carburetor  is  due  to  water 
settling  in  the  float  chamber  or  supply  pipe  in 
cold  weather  when  the  motor  stands  idle  any 
length  of  time.  If  the  temperature  is  cold 
enough,  it  will  freeze.  An  application  of  rags 
saturated  with  hot  water  will  remedy  the  trou- 
ble, after  which  drain  float  chamber  and  sedi- 
ment chamber  in  the  gasoline  tank. 

4.  Flooding  is  caused  by  dirt,  which  prevents 
the  float  valve  from  seating,  a  defect  in  the 
float  mechanism,  which  would  prevent  the  float 
valve  from  seating,  and  a  saturated  cork  or 
punctured  metal  float.  A  leaky  float  valve  will 
also  cause  the  carburetor  to  flood. 


36  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Dirt  under  the  float  valve  is  perhaps  the 
greatest  source  of  trouble  when  the  carburetor 
floods,  since  this  valve,  through  the  action  of  the 
float,  controls  the  amount  of  gasoline  entering  the 
float  chamber.  Some  times  a  continued  flooding 
will  remove  this  dirt.  However,  the  best  method 
is  to  remove  the  float  chamber,  so  that  it  can  be 
thoroughly  cleaned.  In  doing  this  the  other 
things  which  cause  flooding  can  also  be  inspected. 
Some  part  of  the  float  mechanism  may  have  be- 
come bent  to  prevent  the  valve  from  closing, 
while  the  valve  and  seat  may  need  renewing. 

The  float  should  also  be  examined.  If  this  is 
made  of  cork  it  may  have  become  saturated  with 
gasoline,  so  that  it  is  too  heavy  to  rise  and  return 
the  valve  to  its  seat.  If  it  has  become  saturated, 
it  should  be  thoroughly  dried  in  a  warm  place 
for  a  number  of  hours,  after  which  give  it  a 
thin  coat  of  shellac  to  prevent  resaturation.  If 
it'  is  made  of  metal,  it  may  have  sprung  a  leak, 
so  that  it  becomes  filled  with  gasoline.  If  this 
is  the  case,  drill  a  small  hole  into  it  so  that  the 
gasoline  can  be  drained  out  of  it;  finally  solder 
the  leak  and  the  hole. 

5.  Nozzle  choked.  If  the  float  chamber  fills 
with  gasoline,  the  nozzle  or  jet  which  is  situated 
directly  in  the  path  of  the  incoming  air  may 
have  become  choked  with  dirt.  However,  this 
would  only  cause  the  engine  to  misfire  once  or 
twice,  since  the  obstruction  would  soon  be  re- 
moved by  suction  of  the  engine. 

6.  Excess  air  temperature.  Some  carbure- 
tors have  provisions  for  heating  the  fuel  with 
both  hot  water,  which  is  circulated  around  the 
mixing  chamber,  and  hot  air,  which  is  taken 
from  around  the  exhaust  manifold  and  led  into 
the  primary  air  intake.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances these  two  devices  should  not  be  touched. 
However,  in  extremely  hot  climates  it  may  be 


The  Fuel  Feed. 


37 


) 


z 

2     2 


38  Care  of  Automobiles. 

found  desirable  to  shut  off  either  one  or  both. 
An  air  adjustment  is  generally  provided  on  the 
cowl  or  steering  gear  to  control  the  warm  air, 
while  the  hot  water  system  is  provided  with  a 
petcock  so  that  it  can  be  shut  off. 

There  are  also  a  few  mechanical  difficulties 
which  may  prevent  the  motor  from  starting,  and 
which  can  be  traced  to  the  carburetor.  These 
may  be  due  to  some  disarrangement  of  the  con- 
trol rods  from  the  steering  gear  and  the  acceler- 
ator pedal.  This  can  be  determined  by  opening 
and  closing  the  throttle  from  the  steering  wheel, 
if  small  lever  on  the  carburetor  moves  with  the 
control  rod,  the  control  is  correct.  There  is 
a  small  butterfly  valve  near  the  point  where  the 
carburetor  is  bolted  to  the  intake  manifold, 
which  is  attached  to  the  same  shaft  that  carries 
the  control  lever  connected  to  the  steering  wheel. 
In  some  carburetors  this  butterfly  valve  is  at- 
tached to  the  shaft  by  means  of  a  small  sci'ew, 
and  if  the  screw  becomes  loose  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  operate  the  valve,  that  is,  the  valve  can- 
not open.  If  there  is  any  trouble  discovered  with 
it,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  the  carburetor 
to  tighten  the  screw. 

7.  Carburetor  adjustment.  Carburetor  ad- 
justments are  necessary  for  atmospheric  condi- 
tions, and  certain  conditions  of  operation.  The 
carburetor  adjustment  should  never  be  tampered 
with  unless  you  are  absolutely  certain  it  needs 
attention.  However,  before  making  any  car- 
buretor adjustments,  be  sure  that  the  ignition 
system  is  in  perfect  order,  as  in  most  cases  this 
adjustment  is  changed  before  the  real  source  of 
trouble  is  discovered.  Once  adjusted,  there  is 
very  little  danger  of  it  getting  out  of  adjustment. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  only  an  extreme 
change  in  weather  conditions  will  make  adjust- 
ments necessary. 


The  Fuel  Feed. 


39 


Faulty  operation  of  the  motor  will  show  the 
following  general  characteristics: 

If  the  engine  runs  spasmodically  and  stops,  the 
mixture  is  too  lean,  that  is,  it  does  not  contain 
enough  gasoline  vapor  in  proportion  to  the  quan- 
tity of  air  passing  throug  the  carburetor.  This 
is  also  the  case  if  the  engine  runs  with  the  spark 
retarded  and  a  quick  opening  of  the  throttle, 
causing  popping  in  the  carburetor.  This  can  be 
remedied  by  increasing  the  tension  on  the  aux- 
iliary air  valve  spring  slowly  so  that  a  greater 
suction  is  required  to  open  the  valve. 

If  the  mixture  contains  too  great  a  proportion 
of  gasoline,  or,  in  other  words,  if  it  is  too  rich, 
the  motor  will  be  sluggish  in  its  action  and  very 
black  smoke  will  issue  from  the  muffler,  back 
firing  through  the  muffler  will  also  be  noticed, 
due  to  unused  gas  passing  through  the  motor  and 
igniting  there. 


Fig.  7. 


A  blue  smoke  at  the  muffler  indicates  too  much 
oil.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  method  of  adjusting  the  various  types 
of  carburetors.  However,  the  above  conditions 
apply  to  any  carburetor,  and  it  is  necessary  for 
the  motorist  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  vari- 
ous points  at  which  adjustments  are  made.  It 
will  suffice  to  say  that  a  carburetor  adjustment 
should  never  be  attempted  with  motor  cold  and 


40  Care  of  Automobiles. 

idle.  Also  get  the  engine  warmed  up  and  make 
adjustments  while  it  is  running  and  with  spark 
retarded  for  idling.  When  this  adjustment  is 
completed  advance  the  spark  and  open  throttle 
gradually  and  set  for  high  speed. 


CHAPTER    V. 

Removing  the  Query  From  Carburetor 

Adjustment. 

An  Illuminating  Article  Based  on  Actual  Ex- 
perience and  Experimentation,  Which  Points 
the  Way  to  Certain  Means  of  Telling  When 
the  Mixture  is  Adjusted  for  Best  Possible 
Results. 

IT  is  one  thing  to  tell  the  average  car  owner 
or  operator  that  to  obtain  the  best  results  as 
to  power  and  economy  from  his  motor,  his 
carburetor  adjustments  must  be  just  right,  and 
quite  another  to  explain  on  paper  in  a  way  that 
is  readily  understandable  even  to  the  veriest 
novice  the  ways  and  means  of  ascertaining  with 
sufficient  accuracy  just  when  the  proper  carbu- 
retor adjustment  for  ideal  operation  has  been 
reached. 

The  writer  has  had  much  to  do  with  many 
carburetors — and  the  matter  of  obtaining  the 
proper , adjustment,  up  until  a  few  weeks  ago, 
has  always  been  more  or  less  of  a  compromise — 
bluntly  a  case  of  guesswork,  pure  and  simple. 
"This"  was  adjusted  and  "that"  turned  slightly, 
the  motor  being  put  through  its  paces  in  the  in- 
tervals until  a  point  was  reached  where  the 
vaporizing  device  seemingly  gave  the  best  re- 
sults. If  science  entered  into  the  process  of  ad- 
justment at  all,  surely  it  must  have  been  by  "ab- 
sent treatment." 

The  feeling  of  uncertainty  growing  out  of  this 
haphazard  method  of  adjusting  the  carburetor, 
however,  kind  of  upsets  a  fellow  who  wants  to 
be  sure  that  everything  is  quite  correct.  And 
so  about  a  month  ago,  when  I  had  another  car- 

(41) 


42  Care  of  Automobiles. 

buretor  to  adjust,  I  decided  that  I  would  attack 
the  problem  in  a  most  scientific  manner,  and  the 
results  of  my  experience,  no  doubt,  will  prove 
helpful  to  others  who  now  regard  the  matter  of 
carburetor  adjustment  more  as  a  matter  of  luck 
than  anything  else. 

The  fact  that  a  motor  will  run  with  the  mix- 
ture either  far  too  rich  or  far  too  lean  is  the 
chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of  effecting  a  perfect 
carburetor  adjustment.  If,  for  instance,  the 
mixture  had  to  be  exactly  right  at  all  times  for 
the  motor  to  operate  at  all,  the  matter  of  de- 
termining the  point  of  proper  adjustment  would 
lose  all  of  its  uncertainty,  although  the  task 
might  not  be  facilitated.  And  incidentally,  car- 
buretor design  would  be  far  advanced  over  its 
present  state. 

Just  how  far  wide  of  the  mark  the  mixture 
strength  can  be  and  still  permit  of  the  motor 
running  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  whereas  ex- 
perimentation and  chemical  figuring  have  shown 
that  the  proper  proportions  for  ideal  working 
conditions  are  15  parts  of  air  to  one  of  gasoline, 
the  motor  will  operate  on  a  mixture  so  strong 
as  8  air  to  1  gasoline  and  so  weak  as  22  parts  of 
air  to  1  gasoline.  And,  of  course,  it  will  work 
on  any  gasoline  and  air  proportion  in  between 
these  two  extremes.  The  difficulty  of  attaining 
the  exact  adjustment  to  produce  the  15  to  1 
ideal  mixture  by  the  rule  of  thumb  method  will 
at  once  be  apparent. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  question  of  suitable 
methods  of  observation  of  mixture  strength,  etc., 
it  might  be  of  interest  to  state  the  most  suitable 
mixtures  for  different  purposes.  Thus,  for  com- 
plete combustion,  which  gives  the  greatest  speed 
of  flame  travel  and  very  nearly  maximum  power, 
the  mixture  as  above  stated  should  be  about  15 
to  1.    But  owing  to  dilution  of  the  charge  by  ex- 


Carburetor  Adjustment  43 

haust  gases  due  to  incomplete  scavenging,  and 
one  or  two  other  causes  of  theoretical  interest 
only,  it  has  been  found  that  a  somewhat  richer 
mixture  strength  of  about  12  to  1  is  desirable 
for  maximum  power  and  acceleration,  such  as 
for  speed  bursts,  hill  climbs,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  fuel  economy  is  the  chief 
end  sought,  a  mixture  of  about  19  or  18  to  1 
will  give  the  best  results ;  but  this  maximum  fuel 
economy,  while  it  will  be  obtained  with  all  around 
good  running  conditions  aside  from  easy  start- 
ing in  cold  weather,  will  be  gained  at  the  ex- 
pense of  a  slight  falling  off  in  power  amounting 
to  from  10  to  15  per  cent — not  a  very  serious 
factor  where  surplus  power  is  provided  and 
speed  not  the  ultimate  end  m  view. 

Mixtures  weaker  or  richer  than  those  men- 
tioned, while  they  will  permit  of  the  motor  oper- 
ating, will  give  bad  results  in  the  way  of  carbon 
deposit,  tendency  to  overheat,  flare  backs  in  the 
carburetor,  muffler  explosions,  etc. 

There  are  several  ways  of  procedure  to  de- 
termine the  accuracy  or  inaccuracy  of  the  mix- 
ture proportions.  The  usual  method  is  to  make 
certain  changes  in  the  carburetor  adjustments 
and  note  the  results;  in  laboratories,  brake  and 
acceleration  tests  are  indulged  in,  the  color  of 
the  explosion  flame  is  noted  or  the  exhaust 
gases  are  analyzed.  They  are  all,  except  the  gas 
analysis,  open  to  the  average  motorist. 

Take  the  carburetor  method,  for  instance.  As- 
suming that  the  motor  is  running  and  we  desire 
to  know  whether  the  mixture  is  too  weak.  It  is 
quite  evident  that  depressing  the  priming  pin  on 
the  float  chamber  will  raise  the  level  of  the  fuel 
slightly,  producing  a  richer  mixture.  If  under 
these  conditions  the  motor  picks  up  speed  and 
shows  an  increase  in  power  witliout  a  tendency 
to  overheat,  then  it  can  safely  be  concluded  that 


44  .Care  of  Automobiles, 

the  ordinary  mixture  is  too  weak  and  adjust- 
ments made  accordingly. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  flooding  gives  rise 
to  no  speed  and  power  increase,  but  causes  over- 
heating, irregular  running  or  tendency  to  choke, 
the  mixture  is,  or  course,  normally  on  the  rich 
side,  and  this  can  be  verified  by  closing  off  the 
gasoline  feed  for  a  few  moments  and  noting 
whether  the  engine  picks  up  speed  as  the  level 
of  fuel  in  the  float  chamber  falls  off.  Another 
simple  test  for  too  lean  a  mixture  is  to  partially 
close  off  the  air  supply  of  the  carburetor.  If  the 
speed  picks  up,  the  mixture  normally  is  too  weak 
and  should  be  corrected. 

Power  and  acceleration  tests  for  determining 
the  condition  of  the  mixture  are  not  beyond  the 
possibility  of  application  by  the  motorist  by  any 
means,  nor  is  a  laboratory  necessary.  In  the 
lalboratory  with  a  brake  test,  the  procedure  is 
usually  to  note  the  power  output  of  the  engine 
from  the  brake  readings  and  to  adjust  the  car- 
buretor until  this,  at  any  working  speed,  is  a 
maximum.  The  mixture  will  then  be  somewhat 
richer  than  is  necessary  for  complete  combus- 
tion, but  will  be  suitable  for  best  power  results. 

The  same  method  can  be  applied  to  the  case 
of  an  automobile  on  the  road,  either  by  adjusting 
the  carburetor  for  a  given  throttle  position  and 
spark  advance,  so  that  the  greatest  speed  is  at- 
tained without  ill  effects  or  irregular  running,  or 
for  the  greatest  power  at  a  set  speedometer  read- 
ing such  as  when  hill  climbing. 

Acceleration  tests  are  interesting  and  helpful 
in  indicating  the  mixture  setting.  If  the  engine 
accelerates  much  better  when  the  gasoline  supply 
is  increased  relatively  to  the  air,  it  is  proof  that 
the  mixture  is  normally  too  weak  for  the  best 
power  results.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  no  differ- 
ence in  the  acceleration  of  the  car  is  noticed  upon 


Carburetor  Adjustment.  45 

flooding  the  jet,  or  restricting  the  air  supply,  the 
mixture  may  be  normally  correct  for  best  power 
purposes. 

Another  practical  method  is  to  note  the  gaso- 
line consumption  with  different  carburetor  alter- 
ations and  to  adjust  the  latter  until  the  best 
economy  in  gasoline  is  shown  without  being  ac- 
companied with  a  falling  off  in  power  of  the 
motor  for  the  same  conditions  as  to  throttle 
opening  and  spark  advance.  These  tests  can 
easily  be  made  in  the  course  of  an  ordinary  run 
over  a  familiar  stretch  of  road. 

But  to  proceed  to  more  accurate  and  definite 
ways  of  noting  the  carburetor  conditions,  we 
come  to  the  method  of  observing  the  color  of  the 
explosion  flame — a  method  which  gives  abso- 
lutely accurate  results  and  which  can  readily  be 
employed  by  anyone.  While  a  measure  of  suc- 
cess is  met  with  by  the  simple  expedient  of  re- 
moving the  exhaust  manifold  and  noting  the 
color  of  the  flame  issuing  from  the  exhaust  pas- 
sages, the  best  plan  is  to  make  use  of  a  quartz 
window  so  that  the  gases  can  be  observed  di- 
rectly in  the  combustion  chamber  of  the  motor. 

The  window  was  made  from  the  shell  and 
compression  nut  of  a  discarded  spark  plug,  a  bit 
of  asbestos  packing  and  a  clear  glass  marble 
such  as  the  boys  use  to  play  with.  The  marble 
is  of  such  diameter  that  it  fits  within  the  shell 
of  the  plug,  but  is  sufficiently  large  to  get  a  firm 
bearing  on  the  shoulder  within  the  shell  which 
normally  serves  for  the  retention  of  the  core. 
A  sufficient  amount  of  the  packing  is  placed 
around  the  marble  and  tightly  compressed  by 
the  nut  hold  the  window  firmly  in  place  and 
still  prevent  leakage  and  breakage  of  the  glass 
due  to  expansion  and  contraction. 

An  alternative  design  is  shown  in  another 
sketch.    In  place  of  the  marble,  a  small  disc  of 


46 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


Alternative  methods  of  making  an   observation  window. 

quartz  glass  is  used,  measuring,  roughly,  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  thickness.  It  is  held  firmly  in  place 
between  two  copper  asbestos  washers  by  the 
compression  screw.  The  quartz  can  be  obtained 
from  any  optician. 


Where  window  is  mounted. 


The  observation  plug,  as  we  will  term  it,  is 
screwed  home  in  a  valve  cap — an  extra  inlet 
valve  cap  being  obtained  for  the  purpose — which 
is  substituted  for  the  solid  cap  used  over  the  ex- 
haust valve.  This  position,  directly  over  the  ex- 
haust valve,  is  the  best  place  for  the  window. 

As  to  its  utility  make  some  mixture  strength 
measurements  corresponding  to  different  flame 
colors,  and  from  these  it  will  be  shown  that 
mixtures  weaker  than  are  required  for  complete 
combustion,  such  as  the  more  economical  mix- 


Carburetor  Adjustment.  47 

tures  mentioned  earlier,  give  a  very  definite 
whitish  blue  flame  during  explosion,  whereas  the 
perfect  combustion  flame  is  a  dazzling  light-blue 
color. 

The  mixtures  giving  the  maximum  power  re- 
sults— but  not  so  great  fuel  economy — are  char- 
acterized by  a  slight  yellowish  tinge,  while  over- 
rich  mixtures  are  indicated  by  a  dazzling  yellow 
flash  which  verges  on  the  orange  red  as  the  pro- 
portion of  gasoline  to  air  is  increased.  As  a 
means  of  giving  positive  indication  as  to  correct 
adjustment  of  the  carburetor  the  window  cannot 
be  beat. 

It  is  a  fairly  easy  matter  to  fit  such  an  ob- 
servation window  to  each  cylinder  of  the  motor 
and  to  observe  the  color  of  the  flame  while  run- 
ning. It  is  even  feasible  to  observe,  by  means 
of  reflectors  the  flame  color  while  running  on  the 
road  and  to  adjust  the  carburetor  accordingly 
to  give  the  best  possible  results  throughout  the 
entire  speed  scale. 

Turning  finally  to  the  exhaust  as  an  indicator 
of  the  carburetor  conditions,  some  observations 
of  its  color,  smell  and  sound  can  be  taken  as 
rough  indications  of  the  mixture  strength.  Thus, 
placing  a  white  background  at  the  muffler  orifice, 
the  color  of  the  exhaust  gases  should  show  a 
faint  brown  tinge  when  the  mixture  is  about  cor- 
rect, whereas  richer  mixtures  show  a  distinctly 
darker  color,  due  to  finely  graded  carbon  par- 
ticles. Again,  the  pungent  odor  of  the  ultra  rich 
mixture  exhaust  is  quite  characteristic  and  dis- 
tinct from  less  rich  mixtures. 

The  actual  sound  of  the  exhaust,  with  a  little 
practice,  can  be  taken  as  a  sure  guide  to  the 
carburetor's  action,  for  there  is  no  mistaking  the 
healthy  note  of  the  proper  mixture,  compared 
with  the  partially  muffled  and  prolonged  exhaust 
beats  in  the  case  of  over-rich  and  lean  mixtures 


48 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


Ar»mLrtt  a^  Carbon  MonQtKJe,   Prf^e.-n.t 


/tmoii-n-t.  ftj  Ox\fife'.n  Pre.<i^Tn.f 


Chart    for    determining    proper    carburetor    setting 
from    exhaust  gas  analysis. 


Carburetor  Adjustment.  49 

in  any  given  engine,  other  conditions  remaining 
the  same. 

There  remains  the  method  of  exhaust  gas 
analysis,  which,  of  course,  is  beyond  the  scope 
of  the  average  motorist.  The  accompanying 
chart,  which  approximates  the  conditions  obtain- 
ing where  the  exhaust  gases  are  analyzed  under 
all  conditions  as  to  mixture  strength,  from  the 
very  weakest  on  which  the  motor  will  operate 
to  the  very  richest. 

It  will  be  seen  that  on  the  rich  mixture  side 
of  the  scale  there  is  a  constantly  increasing  pro- 
portion of  the  gas  "carbon  monoxide"  present 
in  the  exhaust  gases,  while  on  the  weak  mixture 
side  of  the  scale  the  same  is  true  of  the  gas 
"oxygen."  Neither  of  the  gases  is  present  in 
appreciable  quantities  at  the  15  to  1  point,  the 
condition  for  complete  combustion  of  the /fuel. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Operation  and  Care  of  Vacuum  Tank. 

How  the  Stewart  Fuel  Feed  System  Works  De- 
scribed in  Detail — Some  Suggestions  for 
Dodging  Trouble  and  Correcting  Faidts. 

INDICATIVE  of  the  readiness  with  which  tne 
motor  car  designer  takes  up  a  "good  thing" 

is  the  case  of  the  vacuum  feed  system  for  in- 
suring a  plentiful  supply  of  gasoline  to  the  car- 
buretor at  all  times,  regardless  of  the  position  of 
the  tank,  the  inclination  of  the  car  or  the  several 
other  drawbacks  that  sometimes  lead  to  failure 
in  the  case  of  the  gravity  and  pressure  feed  sys- 
tems and  modifications  or  combinations  of  the 
two. 

It  was  only  a  few  years  ago — in  1913,  to  be 
exact — that  the  first  vacuum  tank  made  its  ap- 
pearance. Yet  a  recent  canvas  of  the  present 
automobile  offerings  reveals  the  fact  that  practic- 
ally all  of  the  cars  have  adopted  the  system  as 
standard  equipment. 

The  Stewart  vacuum  gasoline  feed  system, 
which  is  the  pioneer  in  the  field,  smploys  a  small 
supplementary  gasoline  tank  under  the  hood  of 
the  car.  This  tank  is  connected  by  copper  tub- 
ing to  the  intake  manifold  of  the  motor,  to  the 
inlet  into  the  carburetor  float  chamber  and  also 
to  the  gasoline  supply  tank,  whether  that  is  lo- 
cated under  the  seat  or  at  the  rear  of  the  car. 
Simply  explained,  its  action  is  as  follows :  When 
the  motor  is  turned  over,  the  pumping  action  of 
the  pistons  creates  a  partial  vacuufm  in  tlie  inlet 
manifold  and  this  vacuum  is  utilized  to  draw  the 
gasoline  from  the  supply  tank  into  the  smaller 
supplementary  tank  under  the  dash.     The  feed 

'       (50) 


operation  of  Vacuum  Tank.        51 

from   the   small    tank   to   the   carburetor   is  by 
gravity. 

The  vacuum  tank  comprises  two  chambers. 
The  upper  one  is  the  filling  chamber  and  the 
lower    one    is    the    emptying    chamber    of    the 


AIR  VENr  niBE 


SUCTION  VALVE 


Sectional  View  Vacuum  Tank. 


vacuum  tank.  Between  these  two  chambers  is  a 
partition  in  which  is  placed  a  valve.  The  suc- 
tion of  the  pistons  on  the  intake  creates  a 
vacuum  in  the  upper  chamber  and  this  suction  is 
sufficient  to  close  the  valve  between  the  two 
chambers  and  also  suck  the  gasoline   from  the 


52  Care  of  Automobiles. 

main  supply  tank  into  this  upper  chamber.  As 
the  gasoline  flows  into  this  upper  chamber  it 
raises  a  float  valve. 

When  the  level  of  the  gasoline  has  risen  to  a 
predetermined  point,  the  float  valve  comes  into 
play  and  it  shuts  off  the  suction  and  at  the  same 
time  opens  a  vent  admitting  air  through  the  vent 
tube.  The  admission  of  the  outside  air  soon  de- 
stroys the  vacuum  w^ithin  the  inner  chamber,  so 
that  the  valve  between  the  two  chambers  is 
opened  by  the  pressure  of  the  gasoline,  permitting 
the  fuel  to  pass  down  into  the  lower  chamber. 
This  chamber  is  always  open  to  the  outside  air, 
so  that  there  never  is  anything  to  prevent  the 
flow  of  the  gasoline  from  this  point  to  the  car- 
buretor. 

When  enough  of  the  gasoline  has  passed  to  the 
lower  chamber  the  falling  float  again  opens  the 
suction  valve  and  closes  the  vent  valve  so  that 
more  gasoline  is  drawn  from  the  tank.  The 
action  is  continuous  and  absolutely  automatic, 
so  that  there  is  always  a  free  flow  of  gasoline  to 
the  carburetor,  and  the  fact  that  there  is  always 
enough  gasoline  held  in  reserve  in  the  supple- 
mentary tank  insures  plenty  of  gas  for  starting 
without  the  necessity  of  turning  over  the  motor 
to  draw  it  from  the  main  tank,  or  operating  any 
pumps,  as  was  the  case  w^ith  the  old  pressure 
feed  system.  Neither  will  the  flow  stop  because 
of  the  inclination  of  the  car  on  a  hill  or  for  any 
similar  cause. 

It  is  best  to  leave  the  vacuum  feed  tank  alone ; 
don't  tamper  with  it.  It  is  not  very  likely  that 
it  will  ever  be  necessary  to  open  the  tank,  but 
if  it  is  opened,  follow  these  instructions  care- 
fully: Before  proceeding  to  repair  the  vacuum 
feed  tank,  make  absolutely  sure  that  the  trouble 
is  not  due  to  some  other  cause.  Remember  that 
failure  to  feed  gasoline  to  the  carburetor  may 


operation  of  Vacuum  Tank.        S3 

be  due  to  causes  other  than  the  vacuum  system. 
Therefore,  do  not  blame  the  vacuum  system  until 
you  have  made  certain  that  the  fault  does  not  lie 
elsewhere. 

After  lifting  the  cover  from  the  float  of  the 
carburetor  and  finding  no  gasoline  in  the  float 
chamber,  you  can  be  certain  that  the  upper 
chamber  in  the  vacuum  tank  is  not  delivermg 
gasoline  to  the  lower  chamber.  This  may  be 
caused  by  lack  of  fuel  in  the  main  supply  tank 
or  the  filler  cap  of  the  main  tank  may  have  the 
vent  hole  stopped  up.  It  may  also  be  due  to  a 
leak  in  gasoline  line  or  its  connections,  the  lead 
to  the  manifold,  or  the  manifold  itself.  Or 
again  it  may  be  caused  by  the  fact  that  the 
float,  which  should  be  air  tight,  has  developed  a 
leak,  permitting  the  entry  of  gasoline,  which  pre- 
vents it  rising  sufficiently  to  close  the  vacuum 
valve.  In  this  case,  the  pure  gasoline  will  be 
drawn  into  the  manifold,  choking  up  the  motor. 
Proper  operation  depends  upon  the  float  being 
air  tight. 

If  a  leaky  float  is  discovered  or  suspected, 
remove  the  top  of  the  tank  to  which  the  float  is 
attached,  by  taking  out  the  screws  around  the 
upper  rim  and  running  a  dull  knife  blade  around 
the  top  between  the  cover  and  the  body  of  the 
tank,  so  as  to  separate  the  gasket  without  damag- 
ing it.  The  gasket  is  shellaced  in  order  to  make 
an  air  tight  joint.  Dip  the  float  into  a  pan  of  hot 
water  in  order  to  determine  definitely  where  the 
leak  is.  Bubbles  will  be  seen  at  the  point  where 
the  leak  occurs ;  mark  this  spot. 

Next  punch  two  small  holes,  one  in  the  top  and 
the  other  in  the  bottom  of  the  float,  to  permit  the 
gasoline  to  run  out;  drain  the  float  thoroughly 
and  then  solder  up  these  holes  and  the  leak.  Test 
the  float  in  hot  water  again.  In  soldering  the 
float  be  careful  not  to  use  more  solder  than  is 


54  Care  of  Automobiles. 

absolutely  necessary,  for  an  excess  of  solder 
may  make  the  float  too  heavy  for  perfect  oper- 
ation. Be  careful,  also,  not  to  bend  the  float 
guide  rod  when  you  are  taking  out  or  replacing 
the  float.  If  it  should  be  bent,  it  will  strike 
against  the  guide  and  retard  the  float,  producing 
the  same  effect  as  a  leaky  float  and  allowing 
gasoline  to  enter  the  inlet  manifold.  Make  cer- 
tain, also,  that  the  surface  of  the  guide  rod  is 
perfectly  smooth,  so  that  it  cannot  stick  in  and  be 
retarded  by  the  guide. 

To  overcome  the  condition  of  a  leaky  float 
when  you  are  on  the  road,  and  not  handy  to  a 
garage  or  repair  shop,  remove  the  plug  on  top  of 
the  tank.  Sometimes  the  suction  of  the  motor 
will  be  sufficient  to  draw  up  the  gasoline  from 
the  main  tank  despite  the  fact  that  the  plug  is 
removed,  and  in  this  case  you  can  proceed  with- 
out difficulty  to  your  destination.  This  is  not 
always  the  case,  however,  so  that  it  will  some- 
times be  necessary  to  close  up  the  plug  with  the 
motor  running,  thus  allowing  the  motor  to  draw 
up  a  tank  full  of  gas.  Then  open  the  plug  to 
prevent  further  action  and  proceed  until  the 
vacuum  tank  is  empty  again.  There  is  enough 
gas  in  the  tank,  when  full,  to  carry  you  for  two 
or  three  miles,  when  the  process  will  have  to  be 
repeated  until  a  shop  is  reached  where  the  leaky 
float  can  be  repaired. 

Another  possible  source  of  trouble  is  the 
"flapper  valve,"  which  controls  the  flow  of  gaso- 
line between  the  two  chambers  within  the  tank. 
A  small  particle  of  dirt  under  the  valve  will 
prevent  perfect  seating  and  render  the  tank  in- 
operative. In  order  to  recognize  this  condition, 
first  plug  up  the  air  vent ;  then  detach  the  tub- 
ing leading  from  the  tank  to  the  carburetor  from 
the  bottom  of  the  tank.  Start  the  motor — the 
carburetor  bowl   being  filled  with  gasoline   for 


operation  of  Vacuum  Tank.        55 

the  purpose — and  apply  the  finger  to  this  open- 
ing. If  suction  is  felt  continuously,  then  it  is 
evident  that  there  is  a  leak  in  the  connection  be- 
tween the  tank  and  the  main  gasoline  supply,  or 
else  the  flapper  valve  is  being  held  off  its  seat  and 
is  letting  air  into  the  tank  instead  of  drawing 
in  gasoline. 

In  many  cases,  this  trouble  of  a  sticking  valve 
can  be  stopped  by  tapping  the  outside  of  the 
tank,  thus  dislodging  the  particle  of  dirt  or  lint 
that  is  clogging  the  valve.  If  this  does  not  prove 
effective,  remove  the  tank  cover,  as  described 
above,  and  lift  out  the  inner  tank.  The  flapper 
valve  will  be  found  screwed  into  the  bottom  of 
the  inner  tank. 

Other  causes  of  a  dry  carburetor  are  a  loose 
manifold  connection  permitting  the  entry  of  air 
into  the  manifold  and  destroying  the  vacuum  or 
clogging  up  the  one  or  other  of  the  tubes  connect- 
ing the  vacuum  tank  to  the  motor  and  its  ap- 
pendages. All  these  things  should  be  looked  for 
in  turn.  But,  once  again,  before  taking  the  tank 
apart  make  sure  that  the  main  tank  is  filled,  that 
the  vent  in  the  filler  cap  not  clogged  up  and  that 
the  sediment  trap  in  the  main  fuel  supply  line 
leading  into  the  vacuum  tank  is  not  clogged  up. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

How  Wear  Affects  Valve  Timing, 

Constant  Movement  of  Valve  Mechanism  Results 
in  "Play"  in  Parts  Which  Seriously  Affect 
Power — How  Faults  Can  be  Corrected  and 
Timing  Verified. 

THE  opening  and  closing  points  of  the  valves 
are  important  factors  in  the  efficient  opera- 
tion of  the  internal  combustion  engine. 
Variation  is  caused  by  wear  at  a  number  of 
points  such  as  cams,  rollers,  tappets,  pushrods, 
etc.,  as  these  components  are  subjected  to  con- 
siderable service.  Generally  the  greatest  wear 
occurs  in  the  tappet  and  on  the  end  of  the  valve 
stem,  causing  the  valve  to  open  late  and  not  lift 
high  enough,  thus  retarding  the  flow  of  the  mix- 
ture to  the  cylinder. 

Generally  the  opening  and  closing  points  of  a 
motor  are  marked  on  the  periphery  of  its  flywheel 
by  the  manufacturer.  The  figures  and  letters 
and  their  application  are  understood  easily  if 
the  motor's  cycle  of  operation  be  taken  into 
consideration. 

The  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  represent  the  cylinder, 
wiiile  the  letter  I  indicates  the  intake  valve  and 
the  letter  E  the  exhaust  valve.  Thus  the  com- 
bination I,  O,  1,  3,  signifies  the  opening  point  of 
the  intake  valves  of  the  first  and  third  cylinders. 
Another  set  is  I,  C,  2,  4,  which  indicates  the  time 
the  intake  closes.  Similarly,  E.  0, 1,  3,  means  the 
opening  point  of  the  exhaust  valves  of  the  first 
and  third  cylinders.  E,  C,  1,  3,  is  the  closing 
point.  The  letter  C  is  generally  employed  for 
denoting  the  top  and  bottom  centres. 

(56) 


How  Wear  Affects  Valve  Timing.     57 

If  it  be  remembered  that  the  explosions  of  a 
four-cylinder,  four-cycle  motor  do  not  occur  in 
consecutive  order,  that  is,  the  arrangement  of  the 
crankshaft  is  such  that  two  pistons  are  up  and 
two  down  at  the  same  time,  as  indicated  in  an 
accompanying  illustration,  the  timing  will  be 
simplified.  Referring  to  the  sectional  view  of  a 
motor,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  piston  of  the  first 
cylinder  (that  nearest  the  radiator)  has  com- 
pleted the  compression  stroke,  that  both  valves 
are  closed,  and  that  the  mixture  is  ready  to  be 


Four  types  of  Tappets  illustrating  where  wear  occurs. 

ignited  by  the  spark.  The  pistons  of  the  second 
and  third  cylinders  are  practically  at  the  bot- 
tom, these  being  ready  to  begin  the  exhaust  and 
compression  stroke  respectively,  as  may  be  noted 
in  the  drawing. 

The  firing  order  of  the  motor  is  1,  3,  4,  2,  which 
means  that  the  charge  is  ignited  in  this  order. 
Another  firing  order  is  1,  2,  4,  3.  In  either  case, 
however,  there  are  four  strokes  of  the  piston  and 
two  revolutions  of  the  crankshaft  to  obtain  one 
impulse  or  firing  stroke.  By  referring  to  the  firing 
order  below  the  illustration  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  sequence  of  the  strokes  is:  Firing,  exhaust, 
compression  and  suction  or  intake.  By  utilizing 
these  tables  one  may  become  familiar  with  the 


58 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


order  of  explosions,  and  these  figures  may  be 
utilized  in  timing  where  the  flywheel  is  not 
marked.  Where  wear  has  taken  place  at  the 
tappet  or  valve  stem,  and  these  members  are 
adjustable,  the  efficiency  of  the  motor  can  be 
improved  greatly  by  resetting  to  conform  with 
the  figures  on  the  flywheel,  previously  mentioned. 
While  some  makers  advise  the  use  of  a  business 
card,  inserting  it  between  the  valve  stem  and 
tappet,  the  better  method  is  to  utilize  the  fly- 
wheel marks. 


Illustrating   How   Valves   Are   Timed  and   Tappets   Adjusted   by 
Utilizing    Markings  on  the  Flywheel. 


FIRING  ORDER,  1-2-4-3. 

Cylinder  1 
1 — Firing 
2 — Exhaust 
8 — Suction 
4 — Compression 

Cylinder  2 
Compression 
Firing 
Exhaust 
Suction 

Cylinder  8 
Exhaust 
Suction 
Compression 
Firing 

Cylinder  4 
Suction 
Compression 
Firing 
Exhaust 

FIRING  ORDER.  1-3-4-2. 

Cylinder  1 
1 — Firing 
S — Exhaust 
8 — Suction 
i — Compression 

Cylinder  2 
Exhaust 
Suction 
Compression 
firing 

Cylinder  3 
Compression 
Firing 
Exhaust 
Suction 

Cylinder  4 
Suction 
Compression 
Firing 
Exhaust 

Generally  an  indicator  in  the  form  of  an  arrow 
is  fitted  to  the  motor  and  its  parts  to  facilitate 
the  work  of  the  timing,  but  if  the  engine  be  not 
thus  equipped,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  a 
mark  on  the  cylinder  to  indicate  the  centres. 


How  Wear  Affects  Valve  Timing.     59 

The  mark  may  be  checked  by  placing  the  piston 
of  the  first  cylinder  at  the  top  of  its  stroke,  or  by 
having  the  crank  throws  vertical. 

As  has  been  previously  explained,  the  crank- 
shaft makes  half  a  revolution  to  each  stroke. 
Referring  again  to  the  drawing,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  first  cylinder  is  about  to  fire  and  that 
both  valves  are  closed.  The  exhaust  of  the  sec- 
ond is  about  to  open.  If  the  timing  be  correct 
the  indicating  arrow  will  register  with  the  line 
on  the  flywheel  marked  E,  O,  2,  3.  If  late  these 
figures  will  pass  by  the  indicator  and  the  tappet 
of  the  exhaust  valve  of  the  second  cylinder 
should  be  lengthened  until  the  valve  starts  to 
lift  with  the  arrow  and  line  coinciding. 

By  moving  the  flywheel  slightly  the  marks  I, 
O,  4,  1,  should  appear  as  the  intake  valve  of  the 
fourth  cylinder  starts  to  lift,  and  if  it  does  not 
the  adjustment  of  the  tappet  should  be  altered. 
If  the  flywheel  is  now  given  approximately  half  a 
turn  the  markings  for  the  exhaust  valves,  1  and 
4,  and  intake,  2  and  3,  will  appear  and  can  be 
checked.  If  the  closing  points  are  included  in 
the  markings  on  the  flywheel,  it  is  advisable  to 
utilize  them. 

When  the  flywheel  is  not  marked  the  timing 
will  have  to  be  secured  from  the  factory.  A. 
gauge  will  be  useful  in  the  work  and  one  can  be 
made  from  a  strip  of  brass  about  1/16  inch  thick 
and  about  one-inch  wide.  The  length  of  the 
material  will  depend  upon  the  diameter  of  the 
flywheel,  and  as  the  general  average  is  about  15 
inches,  a  foot  and  a  half  of  metal  will  be  suffi- 
cient. The  fraction  of  an  inch  that  equals  a  de- 
gree is  figured  out  and  marked  on  the  brass  as 
indicated  in  the  drawing.  This  is  essential,  as 
generally  degrees  are  utilized.  The  degree  can 
be  calculated  esaliy  as  360  degrees  equal  a  circle. 

In  employing  the  gauge  the  top  and  bottom 


60  Care  of  Automobiles. 

centres  of  the  flywheel  are  located,  and  while 
these  may  be  obtained  by  inserting  a  rod  through 
the  opening  of  the  compression  cock,  the  better 
method  is  to  remove  the  crank  case  or  a  bafifle 
plate  and  make  sure  that  the  crank  throws  are 
exactly  vertical  and  the  piston  is  at  the  top  of 
its  stroke.  In  fine  timing  some  allowance  should 
be  made  for  wear  of  the  timing  gears,  play  in 
the  bearings,  etc. 

After  locating  and  marking  off  the  centres  on 
the  flywheel,  and  providing  an  arrow  or  otlier 
indicating  mark,  the  gauge  is  clamped  or  secured 
to  the  flywheel  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The 
degrees  in  inches  are  then  laid  off  and  the  timing 
may  be  checked. 

All  corrections  should  be  made  with  the  motor 
warm  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results.  The 
relief  cocks  should  be  opened,  or  better  still,  the 
plugs  taken  out  of  the  cylinders,  so  tliat  the  fly- 
wheel may  be  rotated  easily.  If  the  compression 
is  not  relieved  it  will  be  difficult  to  turn  the  wheel 
by  hand,  as  well  as  maintain  it  in  the  position 
desired.  The  adjustment  of  the  valve  openings 
is  a  simple  matter  and  the  operation  will  be  facili- 
tated by  studying  the  accompanying  illustration, 
which  was  drawn  to  make  clear  the  valve  open- 
ings and  the  markings  on  the  flywheel. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

"Giving  the  "Third  Degree"  to  A  Balky 
Motor. 

Just  What  to  Do  and  How  to  Go  About  It  When 
the  Engine  Refuses  to  Behave. 

FINDING  out  the  trouble  with  an  automo- 
bile when  it  won't  run  is,  according  to 
experts,  like  running  down  a  crime.  It  is 
a  process  of  cool  and  logical  elimination.  The 
motorist,  unless  he  be  an  expert  himself,  reading 
sounds  and  signs  with  swift  and  unfailing  ac- 
curacy as  to  their  cause,  should  first  clear  his 
mind  of  all  prejudices  and  passion.  Every  pre- 
conception should  be  magnanimously  dismissed 
from  his  thoughts,  no  matter  how  great  his  haste, 
how  inclement  the  weather,  before,  seeking  the 
truth  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  he  begins  to 
cross-question  the  auto  by  trying  one  part  after 
the  other. 

If  the  engine  stops  on  the  road  and  pressing 
the  starter  pedal  refuses  to  start  it,  the  first  thing' 
to  do  is  to  get  the  crank  out  of  the  tool  kit  and 
crank  over  the  engine.  If,  with  the  gears  in 
neutral,  the  engine  cranks  over  hard,  it  indicates 
a  lack  of  lubricating  oil  or  a  lack  of  water, 
which  has  allowed  the  engine  to  reach  a  tem- 
perature where  the  lubricant  fails  to  perform 
its  work.  If  the  engine  turns  over  fairly  easy 
it  is  not  necessary  to  look  for  oil  or  water  trouble. 

The  next  test  is  for  compression.  If  the 
driver  is  not  experienced  and  is  unable  to  tell 
simply  by  the  resistance  to  the  starting  crank 
if  each  cylinder  has  compression,  he  should  open 
all  petcocks  except  on  one  cylinder  and  lum 
the  crank  over  two  revolutions,  noting  if  there  is 

(61) 


62  Care  of  Automobiles. 

a  resistance  for  one-half  of  a  revolution  in 
the  two  revolutions.  Compression  occurs  only 
on  one  stroke  of  the  piston  in  the  four-stroke 
cycle.  Each  cylinder  should  be  tested  in  a 
similar  manner,  opening  all  petcocks  except  on 
the  cylinder  being  tested ;  see  if  the  compres- 
sion is  practically  equal  in  all  cylinders.  If  one 
cylinder  has  very  weak  or  no  compression, 
the  trouble  will  be  found  usually  in  the  ex- 
haust valve.  First  examine  the  push  rod  to  see 
if  there  is  clearance  between  it  and  the  valve 
when  the  valve  is  supposed  to  be  closed ;  if  there 
is,  the  valve  must  be  lifted  out  and  seat  inspected 
for  carbon.  Sometimes  a  piece  of  carbon  will 
lodge  on  the  valve  seat  and  due  to  the  hammer- 
ing of  the  valve,  will  become  fastened  to  valvfe 
or  seat.  For  temporary  repair  generally  it  can 
be  scraped  off  with  a  knife  and  the  valve  be 
ground  in  upon  reaching  the  garage. 

If  the  trouble  is  not  in  the  exhaust  valve,  it 
might  be  in  the  inlet  valve.  In  some  types  of  en- 
gines the  valve  head  may  break  off  and  get  into 
the  cylinder  and  when  the  piston  comes  up  punch 
a  hole  in  the  piston  head.  A  petcock  may  be 
loose  so  that  it  will  jar  open  sufficiently  to  affect 
the  compression  and  so  cause  the  cylinder  to  miss 
fire.  These  troubles  usually  are  confined  to  one 
cylinder  and  not  to  the  whole  engine. 

The  gasoline  is  the  next  to  be  inspected.  Is 
there  any  gasoline  in  the  bowl  of  the  carburetor? 
This  may  be  determined  by  inspection,  opening 
draincock,  or  "ticking" — flooding.  If  not,  ex- 
amine gasoline  tank  and  see  if  there  is  a  supply; 
then  see  if  the  shutoff  valve  in  the  line  leading 
to  the  carburetor  is  open;  if  so,  drain  the  bowl 
of  the  carburetor  to  get  rid  of  possible  water  and 
dirt.  To  check  the  possible  clogging  of  gasolme 
pipe  or  carburetor  screen,  notice  if  the  bowl 
fills  up  again  in  a  reasonable  time. 


Giving  the  ''Third  Degree!*         63 

Do  not  adjust  the  carburetor.  If  the  engine 
has  been  running  it  is  practically  certain  that  the 
carburetor  has  not  become  out  of  adjustment. 
Inspect  the  intake  pipe,  or  manifold,  to  see  if  it 
has  been  loosened  by  vibration.  If  the  engine 
still  refuses  to  run,  put  about  a  tablespoonful  of 
gasoline  in  each  cylinder  and  crank  over  the  en- 
gine. If  this  runs  the  engine  for  a  few  revolu- 
tions it  indicates  that  the  trouble  is  in  the  gaso- 
line system  and  leaves  but  the  spray  nozzle, 
which  may  be  stuck,  as  remaining  causes. 

Next  inspect  the  ignition  system.  The  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  loosen  one  of  the  wires  from  a 
spark  plug  and  lay  or  hold  it  so  the  bare  end  will 
be  one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  base  of  the 
plug  and  have  some  one  crank  the  engine  by 
hand  or  with  the  starter.  If  a  spark  does  not 
occur,  go  first  to  the  interrupter  points  and  short 
circuit  the  fixed  point  with  a  screwdriver  or 
other  metal  tool  and  see  if  there  is  a  spark.  Ex- 
amine the  points  for  dirt  and  see  if  they  come 
together  and  open  properly.  Then  examine  the 
condition  of  the  battery,  testing  it.  Examine 
the  connectors  on  the  battery,  which  sometimes 
jar  loose;  examine  the  wires  leading  to  the  in- 
terrupter switch;  see  if  they  are  loose,  or  broken, 
or  short  circuited.  This  need  not  be  done  if  the 
spark  shows  at  the  interrupter. 

Examine  the  distributor  for  moisture  or  dirt 
and  see  if  the  wires  have  become  loose.  If  a 
magneto  only  is  used,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  see 
if  the  interrupter  points  are  making  and  break- 
ing properly,  and  if  the  distributor  is  clean  and 
dry.  If  these  appear  to  be  all  right  the  trouble 
is  doubtless  in  the  armature  winding  or  the  con- 
denser and  cannot  be  repaired  upon  the  road. 

The  wires  to  the  plugs  may  be  burned  or 
short  circuited.  If,  with  an  apparently  good 
spark,  we  have  compression  and  there  is  a  mix- 


64  Care  of  Automobiles 

ture  passing  into  the  cylinders,  the  trouble  may 
be  in  the  spark  plug.  To  test  a  spark  plug  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  it.  Widen  the  gap  to  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  and  lay  the  plug  with  wire  at- 
tached upon  the  cylinder;  crank  the  engine  and 
see  if  the  spark  jumps  the  gap.  Widening  the 
gap  is  necessary,  because  the  spark  will  not  jump 
so  far  under  pressure  as  in  the  open  air.  If  it 
does  not  jump,  the  plug  may  have  a  broken  in- 
sulator or  need  cleaning.  An  extra  set  of  plugs 
should  be  carried  to  replace  those  which  be- 
come dirty;  cleaning  should  be  done  in  the 
garage.  If  uncertain  about  condition  of  plug, 
exchange  it  with  one  in  another  cylinder  that  is 
working  properly. 

This  covers  most  of  the  usual  troubles  expe- 
rienced on  the  road.  There  are,  of  course,  a 
great  many  other  possibilities,  but  if  these  tests, 
carefully  made,  do  not  disclose  the  cause  of  the 
trouble,  it  is  advisable  that  the  novice  send  for 
a  garage  man.  If  one  or  two  cylinders  miss  fire, 
the  trouble  is  most  likely  to  be  caused  through 
lack  of  compression  or  short-circuited  spark 
plug.  If  the  engine  refuses  to  run,  the  trouble 
is  most  likely  to  be  due  to  lack  of  gasoline  or 
failure  of  battery  or  magneto. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
Applying  Logic  to  Difficult  Starting. 

Tracing  Starting  Troubles  to  Tt^fir  Source  by 
the  Process  of  Elimination  and  Effecting 
Cures. 

WE  should  think  logically.  That  is,  after 
all,  the  best  advice  for  those  who  ex- 
perience difficulty  in  starting,  and  are 
unable  to  assign  a  cause.  It  can  be  applied  to 
every  trouble  experienced  with  a  car.  There 
must  be  a  reason.  Find  that  reason  and  the 
cause  is  soon  curable. 

Now,  when  it  comes  to  assigning  a  cause  for 
an  engine  that  regularly  requires  a  considerable 
amount  of  "cranking"  before  we  are  rewarded 
with  the  syncopated  music  of  its  four  cylinders, 
we  have,  after  all,  very  few  factors  to  consider. 
We  are  assuming  that  in  the  ordinary  way  the 
engine  runs  evenly  and  pulls  well,  as  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  where  the  only  difficulty  is  in 
starting  up  from  cold,  and  therefore  many  fac- 
tors can  be  left  out  of  consideration.  The  pro- 
cess of  reasoning,  therefore,  is  this: 

Provided  we  introduce  a  volatile  inflammable 
mixture  into  the  combustion  chamber  and  a  spark 
of  sufficient  intensity  to  fire  the  charge,  the  engine 
must  start.  We  will,  therefore,  begin  to  examine 
either  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  conditions  to 
see  if  they  are  produced,  which  is  far  betfer  than 
violently  flooding  the  carburetor,  opening  the 
throttle  lever  and  furiously  "spinning"  the  mo- 
tor in  heroic  but  purposeless  eflforts  to  induce 
the  motor  to  start. 

Let  us  consider  the  question  of  the  spark  first, 
because  it  is  usually  the  prime  cause  of  difficulty 

(65) 


66 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


in  an  engine  which  otherwise  behaves  as  it 
should,  and  is  invariably  given  the  least  con- 
sideration. As  the  quickest  means  of  determin- 
ing whether  the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  to  be 
looked  for  in  this  direction,  take  out  one  of  the 
spark  plugs,  with  the  high  tension  lead  firmly 
attached,  and  lay  it  on  top  of  its  cylinder  in  a 
position  where  the  points  can  be  seen. 

Moisture  condensing  on  the  electrodes  is  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  failure  to  start  and  the  plug 
should  be  examined  for  the  presence  of  water 
immediately  on  removal  from  the  cylinder.  With 


the  plug  in  position  on  the  cylinder,  turn  the 
motor  over.  If  the  good  fat  speark  jumps  across 
the  points,  we  can  perceive  at  once  that  the  plug 
or  the  spark  is  not  a  likely  cause  of  the  hard 
starting,  and  go  on  to  investigate  the  carburetor. 
If,  however,  there  is  no  spark  at  all,  or  one  which 
is  a  mere  pin  point  of  blue  flame,  we  have  by  far 
the  likeliest  cause  of  difficult  starting.  The  very 
best  mixture  will  not  ignite  under  thege  circum- 
stances. 

It  is  as  well  to  turn  the  motor  over  twice  or 
three  times  to  make  sure  that  the  firing  point 
is  reached  with  the  plug  under  test  and  to  ascer- 
tain also  that  the  magneto  is  not  cut  out  at  the 
switch.    We  will  presume  that  there  is  no  spark 


Applying  Logic  to  Starting.  67 

at  all.  The  cause  must  be  considered.  Either 
the  magneto  is  not  producing  the  spark  or  we 
are  disseminating  the  current  generated  in  other 
useless  ways.  Let  us  adopt  the  latter  assump- 
tion. 

First,  examine  the  plug.  It  may  be  sooted  up 
internally,  which  is  not  hard  to  discern.  We 
can  either  disconnect  the  high  tension  lead  and 
see  if  a  spark  can  be  produced  from  the  termin- 
al at  the  plug  end  almost  in  contact  with  the 
cylinder,  or  we  can  connect  up  the  new  plug 
and  test  it  out  in  this  manner.  If  a  satisfactory 
spark  is  now  produced,  we  have  located  the 
trouble,  which  can  be  cured  by  changing  the 
plugs,  or  by  cleaning  the  old  ones  and  resetting 
the  spark  gaps  to  the  proper  opening,  about  the 
thickness  of  a  visiting  card. 

Perhaps  the  test  reveals  that  there  still  is  no 
spark  or  a  very  feeble  one.  We  are  presuming 
that  the  starting  crank  is  given  a  fairly  rapid 
turn  for  each  test,  although  it  is  surprising  what  * 
an  excellent  spark  can  be  produced  from  a  mag- 
neto by  merely  turning  the  armature  shaft  over 
comparatively  slowly,  as  we  can  test  for  our- 
selves any  time  the  magneto  is  removed  from  the 
power  plant.  If  the  motor  is  very  stiff  when 
cold,  the  thickening  of  the  lubricating  oil  and 
the  gummy  condition  of  the  cylinders  and  bear- 
ings are  prime  causes  of  hard  starting.  The 
remedy  is  the  use  of  a  thinner  oil  and  a  more 
frequent  emptying  of  the  oil  sump  in  cold 
weather.  These  possibilities  being  eliminated  one 
by  one,  let  us  proceed  to  the  magneto. 

A  frequent  cause  of  a  weak  spark  is  the  dirty 
condition  of  the  cutout  or  grounding  terminal 
on  the  magneto.  The  current  will  leak  rapidly 
through  oil  and  grease  at  this  point,  although 
moisture,  which  will  sometimes  collect  here,  is 
a  better  conductor  and  more  likely  to  be  the  seat 


68 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


of  the  trouble.  We  should  disconnect  the  wire, 
clean  the  terminal  thoroughly  and  try  again. 
Still  no  success?  Well,  the  magneto  itself  then 
is  the  probable  cause. 

First  of  all,  however,  disconnect  the  high  ten- 
sion lead  on  the  test  plug,  clean  the  magneto 
terminal,  and  attach  instead  a  piece  of  stiff  cop- 
per wire  with  which  we  can  short  circuit  thfe 
spark  back  on  to  some  part  of  the  magneto  itself 
or  to  some  part  of  the  chassis.    If  we  now  get  a 


Eliminate  leakage  of  the  high  tension   lead. 


spark,  we  establish  the  fact  that  the  current  is 
leaking  through  the  leads  and  can  cure  it  by  in- 
stalling new  high  tension  cables  and  making  sure 
that  the  terminals  are  in  proper  shape.  '  After 
a  car  has  been  in  service  for  a  few  years  the 
cables  are  quite  likely  to  be  found  with  cracked 
insulation,  which  collects  moisture  and  permits 
the  escape  of  the  high  tension  current  from  the 
magneto. 

There  still  being  no  result,  the  trouble  must 
lie  in  the  magneto,  and  as  once  the  engine  starts 
there  is  no  particular  cause  for  complaint,  we 


Applying  Logic  to  Starting.         69 

must  look  for  some  likely  reason  which  would 
manifest  itself  at  low  speeds,  viz.,  a  sticking 
contact  breaker,  imperfect  carbon  brush  and  slip 
ring,  dirty  distributor,  or  demagnetized  mag- 
nets. Examine  the  contact  breaker,  and  as  the 
engine  is  turned  over,  see  that  the  points  open 
and  close. 

Quite  often,  especially  when  the  motor  is  cold, 
the  hell  crank  lever  in  the  circuit  breaker  sticks 
on  its  fibre  bearing.  It  must  be  taken  out,  and 
very  lightly  trimmed  with  a  rat  tail  file,  smearing 
a  little  vaseline  on  the  bearing  before  replacing-, 
when  this  trouble  will  be  cured.  The  platinum 
points  may  be  worn  or  set  too  wide.  Their  ad- 
justment is  a  simple  matter,  and  they  can  be  filed 
dead  flat  with  a  special  magneto  file.  They 
should  open  not  more  than  the  thickness  of  a 
visiting  card.  Taking  out  the  carbon  brush,  it 
may  be  found  broken,  in  which  case  it  must  be 
replaced  with  a  new  one.  The  end,  provided  the 
brush  is  found  not  broken,  should  be  rubbed  on 
a  piece  of  fine  sand  or  emery  paper  to  roughen 
up  and  clean  the  surface.  The  brass  segment 
of  the  slip  ring  may  be  blackened  or  streaked 
with  oil,  the  result  of  too  frequent  oiling  of  the 
magneto  bearings.  It  must  be  cleaned  with  a 
piece  of  rag  dipped  in  gasoline  while  the  arma- 
ture shaft  is  rotated.  The  distributor  brush  and 
segments,  similarly,  must  be  cleaned. 

If,  after  attention  to  these  details,  we  still  fail 
to  produce  a  spark  worthy  of  the  name,  it  is 
fairly  apparent  that  the  magnets  require  remag- 
netizing,  which  is  a  job  beyond  the  capactiy  of 
the  ordinary  amateur,  and  the  whole  magneto 
should  be  sent  to  a  concern  specializing  in  mag- 
neto repairs  or  to  the  nearest  service  station. 
The  magnets  on  a  first-class  magneto  should  last 
fully  four  years  without  attention.  If  we  were 
troubled  with  irregular  firing  through  the  entire 


70 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


range  of  motor  speeds,  and  inexplicable  engine 
stops,  or  the  engine  had  given  out  altogether, 
we  could  look  for  much  more  serious  trouble 
with  the  ignition,  but  we  are  assuming  that  the 
only  trouble  is  difficult  starting,  and  we  are  work- 
ing for  a  cure  on  that  premise.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  long  before  the  test  has  gone  this 
far  the  cause  or  causes  of  the  trouble  will  have 
been  located. 


Beann§  cfSelicrxrfr 
,/et/er 


/^o^neto  Spanner 


Examine  the  contact  breaker  and  platinum  points. 

Now  we  will  consider  the  other  prime  cause 
of  difficult  starting.  The  mixture  is  not  one  that 
is  readily  ignited  even  by  a  good  spark. 

If  the  application  of  heat  to  the  carburetor  and 
inlet  manifold  provides  a  cure,  the  trouble  is 
caused  by  condensation  of  the  mixture,  caused 
by  too  long  an  inlet  pipe.  It  can  be  covered  with 
flannel  or  some  other  heat  retainer  with  advant- 
age, but  defective  motor  design  is  difficult  to 
cure.  Here  is  a  tip,  however,  that  has  been 
found  to  work  wonders.  Soak  a  rag  in  gasoline 
and  place  it  over  the  air  intake  of  the  carbure- 
tor.    A  few  turns  of  the  motor  will  generally 


Applying  Logic  to  Starting.         71 

suffice  for  starting,  and  once  the  motor  starts 
it  heats  up  so  readily  and  will  in  a  few  moments 
be  running  regularly,  when  the  rag  can  be  re- 
moved. The  rag  provides  a  vapor  instead  of  a 
liquid  vapor,  which  must  be  further  broken  up 
in  the  manifold,  the  vapor  being  more  readily 
ignited. 

See  that  all  the  conditions  for  easy  starting  are 
followed  before  making  further  investigation. 
Advance  the  spark  to  the  maximum  point  it  will 
stand  without  the  motor  "kicking."  See  that 
the  switch  is  on  and  the  gasoline  cock  opened. 
Flooding  the  carburetor  until  the  gasoline  runs 
over  freely  is  a  frequent  cause  of  difficult  start- 
ing, because  the  mixture  thus  produced  is  likely 
to  be  far  too  rich.  Try  the  effect  when  the 
engine  is  warm  and  note  the  tendency  to  choke 
and  stop. 

If  the  throttle  is  set  rather  fine  for  slow  run- 
ning when  warm,  open  it  slightly,  and  when  the 
correct  p>oint  is  found  by  successful  starting, 
note  it  forever  more !  With  nearly  every  car- 
buretor, it  is  difficult  to  start  up  on  a  fully  opened 
throttle,  the  reason  being  that  the  fuller  volume 
of  mixture  increases  the  compression  in  the 
cylinders  and  the  higher  the  compression  the 
weaker  the  spark.  As  a  final  try,  turn  off  the 
switch  and  spin  the  motor  over  a  number  of  times 
to  draw  into  the  cylinders  a  good  fresh  charge 
and  then  switch  on  again,  giving  the  engine  a 
good  quick  turn  or  "spin"  it. 

With  every  condition  favorable  for  easy 
starting,  and  yet  with  no  success,  we  must  look 
to  the  carburetor,  possible  losses  of  compression 
and  air  leaks  in  the  intake  system.  The  last 
mentioned  cause  is  the  most  difficult  to  locate, 
but  it  should  be  possible  to  counteract  its  defects 
by  gradually  raising  the  level  of  the  gasoline  in 
the  float  chamber  of  the  carburetor,  opening  the 


72 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


throttle,  and  partly,  then  wholly,  cutting  off  the 
air  supply. 

A  loss  of  compression  is  easy  to  determine, 
but  it  will  almost  certainly  not  exist  in  a  new 
motor,  and  when  present  generally  varies  on  the 
different  cylinders.  Thus,  if  two  or  three  cylin- 
ders seem  to  have  a  fairly  good  compression, 
while  the  third  and  fourth  have  practically  none, 
we  have  a  good  cause  of  difficult  starting,  the 
remedy  for  which  is  an  examination  of  the  pis- 


Clean  the  distributor  ring  and  carbon  brush. 
% 

tons  and  rings,\and  valves.  Sometimes  the  steps 
or  slots  of  the  rings  are  lined  up,  causing  the 
leakage.  A  keen  car  will  discover  a  loss  of  com- 
pression when  the  motor  is  turned  over. 

Look  also  at  the  spark  plugs  and  valve  caps, 
where  a  leakage  will  usually  be  determined  either 
by  a  hissing  sound  when  the  motor  is  running  or 
by  the  presence  of  oil. 

We  can  now  look  at  the  carburetor,  especially 
the  slow  running  adjustment  or  pilot  jet,  which 
may  be  partially  choked.  Unfortunately,  to  give 
instructions  for  tuning  and  adjusting  each  make 


Applying  Logic  to  Starting.         73 

would  take  up  a  considerable  amount  of  space. 
Only  by  constant  trial  and  retrial  will  the  correct 
adjustment  be  found.  Probably  a  different  set- 
ting will  be  necessary  for  cold  and  warm  weather 
running. 

With  regard  to  air  leaks  in  the  inlet  system, 
you  may  discover  the  cause  in  a  carburetor 
which  while  being  tightly  bolted  to  the  motor, 
when  originally  installed,  had  gradually  worked 
loose,  giving  rise  to  an  infinitesimally  small  air 
passage  way  through  the  flange,  which  was 
sufficient  to  make  difficult  starting. 

In  an  old  motor  it  is  best  to  look  for  a  worn 
inlet  valve  guide,  which  will  require  rebushing, 
or  a  new  valve  may  cure  the  trouble.  If  one 
valve  guide  is  found  to  be  worn,  the  other  will 
probably  be  found  in  like  condition.  The  valves 
and  valve  seats  may  require  regrinding.  When- 
ever there  is  the  possibility  of  an  air  leak  occur- 
ing  between  the  carburetor  and  the  cylinders, 
it  must  be  guarded  against,  and  in  so  far  as  ex- 
ternal connections  are  concerned,  there  is  noth- 
ing better  than  shellac,  or  tire  tape  covered  with 
shellac. 


CHAPTER    X. 

The  System  That  Is  Eliminating  the 
Magneto. 

Introduction  of  Dynamo  On  Starting  and  Light- 
ing Systems  Has  Brought  About  a  New 
Regime  in  Automobile  Ignition — Features  of 
Generator-Battery  System. 

WAY  back  in  1912  when  electric  starting 
and  lighting  systems  began  to  make  their 
appearance,  automobile  engineers  with 
foresight  predicted  the  abandonment  of  the  mag- 
neto in  time  to  come  for  ignition  work  on  cars 
fitted  with  the  starting  and  lighting  systems.  The 
prediction  is  coming  true  as  a  matter  of  course, 
for  with  simplification  the  keynote  in  modern 
motor  car  construction  the  retention  of  two  de- 
vices, the  magneto  and  the  starting  and  lighting 
dynamo,  both  employed  for  the  identical  purpose 
of  generating  electricity,  would  be  wholly  incon- 
sistent.    , 

The  high  tension  magneto,  it  will  be  under- 
stood, is  being  thrown  into  the  discard,  insofar 
as  the  pleasure  car  is  concerned,  not  through  any 
failure  on  its  part  to  perform  its  allotted  func- 
tion in  a  most  satisfactory  manner.  Indeed,  the 
performance  of  the  magneto  has  been  so  credit- 
able that  until  the  starting  and  lighting  system 
came  into  being  it  was  the  universal  means  of 
obtaining  ignition  having  entirely  superseded  the 
old  battery  and  coil  system  and  even  now,  in 
bringing  to  the  attention  the  merits  of  the  newer 
generator-battery  ignition  which  is  surplanting 
the  magneto. 

A  glance  at  the  accompanying  diagram  will 
serve  to  make  clear  to  the  reader  the  fact  that 

(74) 


Eliminating  the  Magneto.  75 

to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  generator-battery 
system  of  ignition  is  identical,  as  to  principles 
with  the  magneto  system. 

In  the  magneto  system,  current  is  generated  at 
comparatively  low  voltage  in  the  primary  wind- 
ing of  the  armature,  and  "stepped  up"  to  suffi- 
ciently high  tension  to  jump  the  spark  plug  gaps 
in  the  secondary  coil  also  placed  on  the  armature. 
The  high  tension  current  thus  available  is  led  to 
a  high  tension  distributor  where  it  is  distributed 
to  the  vai:ious  plugs  at  exactly  the  proper  moment 
for  the  ignition  of  the  gases.  A  cam  actuated 
circuit  breaker,  providing  an  exceedingly  rapid 
break  is  inserted  in  the  primary  circuit  and  serves 
to  provide  the  necessary  rapid  drop  in  voltage  to 
cause  the  high  tension  surge  in  the  secondary 
winding  and  a  condenser  is  connected  across  the 
points  to  eliminate  sparking. 

All  this  is  identical  with  generator-battery 
ignition;  there  is  the  same  primary  winding, 
which  with  the  motor  running  takes  current  at 
low  tension  from  the  generator ;  there  is  the  finer 
secondary  with  its  "business  end"  connected  to 
the  high  tension  distributor;  there  is  the  rapid 
circuit  breaking  device  which  breaks  the  circuit 
and  produces  the  surge  at  just  the  proper  in- 
stant for  ignition  in  each  of  the  cylinders;  there 
is  the  spark-preventing  condenser;  everything 
identical.  The  only  difference  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  transformer  coil  in  which  the  current  is 
stepped  up  from  low  to  high  tension  instead  of 
being  mounted  on  the  armature  of  the  magneto 
is  contained  in  a  neat  little  box  which  in  usual 
practice  is  screwed  well  out  of  harms  way  to  the 
dashboard  of  the  car. 

The  current  supply  of  the  generator-battery 
ignition  system  is  constant,  regardless  of  the 
engine  speed.  The  magneto  is  necessarily  limited 
in  its  output  and  can  not  be  increased  beyond  a 


ie 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


V  m 


V  m 


50 

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Eliminating  the  Magneto.  77 

certain  limit.  The  storage  battery  supply  is  flexi- 
ble. If  the  resistance  is  high,  more  current  can 
flow  from  the  battery  to  break  it  down.  If  the 
resistance  is  low,  the  current  flow  is  reduced 
correspondingly.  With  the  source  of  current 
absolutely  independent  of  the  engine  speed,  the 
spark  may  be  advanced  or  retarded  without  af- 
fecting the  intensity  of  the  spark.  With  the 
hot  spark  at  low  speeds,  the  engine  throttles  down 
perfectly  under  load. 

In  any  magneto  using  the  common  shuttle 
armature  and  the  fixed  pole  pieces  there  are  but 
two  positions  in  each  revolution  that  give  the 
maximum  current,  and  the  primary  circuit  should 
be  broken  at  one  of  these  positions  to  give  the 
maximum  intensity  spark.  Obviously,  the  range 
of  speed?  of  the  automobile  must  be  great  to 
overcome  the  road  conditions  encountered.  A 
fixed  spark  will  limit  the  range,  and  the  necessity 
of  retarding  and  advancing  the  spark  arises. 
Since  there  is  as  much  as  thirty  to  forty-five 
degrees  variation  in  the  crankshaft  position  of 
the  occurrence  of  the  spark  throughout  the 
range  of  advance,  the  spark  can  not  occur  always 
when  the  magneto  armature  is  in  the  position  for 
maximum  current,  and  the  spark  varies  in  its 
intensity. 

The  character  of  the  spark  is  identical  in 
either  the  magneto  or  the  generator-battery  sys- 
tem. There  is  but  a  single  spark  across  the  gap 
of  the  spark  plug  in  both  cases,  so  that  there 
is  no  difference  between  the  two  systems  in  re- 
gard to  this  feature.  The  generator-battery  sys- 
tem should  not  be  confused  with  the  vibrator 
coil  system  that  has  been  practically  abandoned. 
There  is  no  vibrator  in  this  entire  system. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

Features  and  Care  of  Ignition  Systems. 

Differences  Between  Open  and  Closed  Circuit 
Quick  Break  Types — Operation  of  Atwater 
Kent  Unisparker  Made  Plain. 

WHILE  in  their  basic  principles  all  of  the 
quick  break  battery  ignition  systems 
fitted  to  modern  cars  are  quite  similar, 
in  their  mechanical,  as  well  as  their  electrical 
details,  there  are  points  of  divergence  which  lend 
individual  merit  to  the  different  makes.  Broadly, 
the  system  is  divided  into  two  broad  classes — 
the  open  and  the  closed  circuit  types — each  of 
which  has  points  of  value  not  discernable  in  the 
other  class. 

The  points  of  difference  between  the  open  and 
the  closed  circuit  types  are  made  perfectly  plain 
by  the  accompanying  sketches.  With  the  closed 
circuit  type,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  spring  tends 
normally  to  keep  the  circuit  breaker  contact 
points  closed,  until  the  cam  revolves  enough  to 
open  the  contact  points,  thus  producing  the 
spark  to  fire  the  charge.  Its  big  feature  is  its 
extreme  simplicity  and  fewness  of  parts ;  it  is 
the  type  found  on  most  of  the  low  and  inter- 
mediate priced  cars. 

On  the  other  hand,  with  the  open  circuit  sys- 
tem, the  spring  tends  normally  to  keep  the 
points  apart  and  the  circuit  broken;  the  cam 
is  brought  into  play  in  order  to  bring  the  points 
together  and  establish  the  circuit.  This  is  done 
through  another  spring  or  a  system  of  levers. 
It  is  not  quite  so  simple  as  the  closed  circuit 
system,  but  the  added  complication  results  in  a 
construction  which  has  material  advantages  over 

(78) 


Care  of  Ignition  Systems. 


79 


the  simpler  type.  With  the  latter,  for  instance, 
as  the  speed  of  the  motor  increases,  the  intervals 
when  contact  is  made  decrease  in  exact  ratio 
with  the  revolutions  of  the  motor.  This  means 
that  at  a  speed  of  1,000  r.  p.  m.  there  is  just 
twice  the  time  provided  for  the  current  flow  as 
at  a  speed  of  2,000  r.  p.  m. 

rKUN  WIRE  FROMHE^E  TO  SU/fTCf/  0<  COIL 


CAM 


CK,oaiiD^^'==- 
ClOSEtO  CtRCOirTltAJErR. 

Diagram   of   closed-circuit   system   of  ignition,   with  con- 
tacts in  open  position. 

In  Other  words,  if  the  adjustment  is  made  so 
that  the  contact  interval  is  just  proper  to  pro- 
vide the  maximum  spark  with  minimum  current 
consumption,    at    say,    2,500    r.    p.    m.,    at    low 

3g     j^  /^(/N  v/lREi  FROM  H€ltt. 
3PR.tHC  ^     V^      ^^  S^ITXLH  OR    COfL 

O 


E= 


p/vor 


CAM 


OPEifi  ORCUn  IIMOL 

Diagram   of   open-circuit   system   of  ignition,   with   con- 
tacts in  open  position. 


80 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


speeds,  there  is  a  waste  of  battery  current,  while 
at  speeds  higher  than  this  set  point  the  full  ef- 
fectiveness of  the  spark  cannot  be  attained.  This 
is  so  because  it  takes  some  slight  interval  to  com- 
plete the  mechanical  act  of  establishing  the  con- 
tact, for  mechanical  appliances  cannot  act  in- 
stantaneously, while  it  also  takes  some  slight 
interval  for  the  voltage  or  surge  of  electric  cur- 
rent in  the  primary  winding  of  the  coil  to  reach 
its  maximum.  In  other  words,  there  is  both  a 
mechanical  and  an  electrical  "lag"  and  the  best 


Diagram   illustrating  principle   of  all  types   of  battery 
ignition  system. 

results  are  attained  only  when  the  duration  of 
the  contact  is  just  right  to  compensate  for  both 
the  mechanical  and  the  electrical  "lost  motion." 
With  the  open  circuit  system,  however,  the 
speed  of  the  motor  has  no  effect  on  the  length 
of  the  interval  the  contacts  are  held  together. 
Whether  the  motor  is  turning  over  at  500  r.  p. 
m.  or  at  3,000  the  contact  interval  is  the  same. 


Care  of  Ignition  Systems.  81 

and  having  been  so  adjusted  at  the  factory,  is 
always  just  right  to  provide  the  maximum  igni- 
tion effectiveness.  Not  only  is  this  more  eco- 
nomical of  current,  but  it  also  results  in  a  better 
running  motor. 

Aside  from  this  slight  mechanical  variation, 
however,  one  quick  break  battery  system  is  much 
like  the  next  so  that  one  schematic  diagram  will 
serve  to  make  known  the  basic  principles  on 
which  all  systems  of  this  character  operate.  By 
reference  to  the  next  figure,  we  find,  for  in- 
stance, that  with  the  exception  of  the  coil,  the 
entire  mechanism  is  built  around  a  single  ver- 
tical shaft  which  is  sometimes  built  in  a  -unit 
with  the  battery  charging  generator,  but  which 
always  is  rotated  from  the  timing  gear  train  at 
one  half  crankshaft  speed.  Mounted  directly 
on  this  shaft  is  the  cam,  while  the  breaker  con- 
tacts and  the  springs  and  other  mechanism  which 
enter  into  the  circuit  breaking  mechanism  as- 
sembly are  carried  on  a  plate  enclosed  with  a 
Bakelite  cover,  the  plate  being  held  normally 
stationary,  but  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  ro- 
tated through  a  slight  angle  in  order  to  provide 
for  advance  and  retard  of  the  spark. 

The  movable  member  of  the  contact  breaker 
is  usually  grounded  directly  to  this  plate,  while 
the  stationary  member,  which  is  adjustable  to 
compensate  for  wear  and  burning  of  the  points, 
is  insulated  from  the  plate  by  means  of  suitable 
bushings.  To  the  terminal  on  the  insulated  con- 
tact is  connected  one  of  the  primary  leads  from 
the  non-vibrating  type  of  coil  which  usually  is 
mounted  behind  the  dash  of  the  car,  the  other 
primary  lead  being  connected  to  the  battery;  the 
ignition  switch  is  interposed  to  control  the  cur- 
rent as  a  matter  of  course.  The  other  or  nega- 
tive terminal  of  the  battery  is  grounded.  It  will 
be  seen,  now,  that  when  the  contact  is  estab- 


82  Care  of  Automobiles. 

lished,  the  current  flows  from  the  battery 
through  the  primary  of  the  ignition  coil  to  the 
stationary  contact  of  the  circuit  breaker  and 
thence  to  the  moving  member  of  the  breaker  to 
ground  and  back  to  the  battery. 

Directly  over  the  circuit  breaker  is  the  high 
tension  distributor.  It  comprises  a  Bakelite  arm 
mounted  on  top  of  the  rotating  shaft  and  pro- 
vided with  a  brass  strip  which  is  absolutely  in- 
sulated from  the  shaft,  but  which  is  brought  into 
contact  with  a  carbon  brush  centrally  mounted 
in  the  top  of  the  Bakelite  cover,  by  means  of  a 
light  spring.  The  brass  strip  is  so  arranged  that 
as  the  arm  rotates  with  the  shaft  it  is  brought 
in  close  proximity  with  a  series  of  contacts, 
mounted  in  a  circle  around  the  Bakelite  cover, 
one  contact  for  each  cylinder  of  the  motor.  The 
metal  strip  does  not  actually  touch  these  con- 
tacts, so  that  there  is  no  wear,  but  the  gap  which 
separates  them  is  so  small  that  even  a  weak 
spark  has  not  the  slightest  trouble  in  jumping 
it.  There  are  some  systems  that  have  a  sliding 
or  positive  contact  in  the  distributor  head. 

The  central  brush  is  connected  to  one  of  the 
secondary  leads  on  the  coil,  the  other  lead  being 
grounded.  The  cables  from  the  other  contacts 
lead  each  to  the  spark  plug  in  the  proper  cylinder 
as  determined  by  the  firing  order  of  the  motor. 
As  the  shaft  rotates,  the  arm  is  brought  suc- 
cessively into  juxtaposition  with  each  of  the  con- 
tacts each  time  the  cani  mechanism  comes  into 
play  making  and  breaking  the  circuit.  The  elec- 
trical surge  which  takes  place  in  the  secondary 
of  the  coil  as  a  result  of  the  making  and  breaking 
of  the  contact  in  the  primary,  therefore,  is  led 
to  the  central  brush  to  the  distributor  arm, 
jumping  the  slight  gap  to  the  plug  contact, 
through  the  cable  to  the  spark  plug.     Here  "it 


Care  of  Ignition  Systems.  83 

again  jumps  a  gap  to  ground — ground  being  the 
metal  of  the  cyHnder — and  back  to  the  grounded 
terminal  of  the  secondary  completing  the  cir- 
cuit. The  next  time  the  circuit  breaker  comes 
into  play  the  arm  has  moved  up  and  is  in  a  posi- 
tion to  send  the  spark  to  the  cylinder  next  in 
firing  order,  and  so  on  throughout  the  whole 
series  of  cylinders. 

The  operation  of  the  op>en-circuit  type  of 
interrupter  for  the  K3  type  of  battery  ignition 
system,  manufactured  by  the  Atwater  Kent  Co., 
in  brief,  is  as  follows:  Four  different  positions 
of  the  interrupter  in  one  of  its  cycles  of  oper- 
ation are  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketch. 
The  cam  or  ratchet.  A,  has  as  many  notches  as 
there  are  cylinders  to  be  fired.  The  ratchet  is 
mounted  on  the  central  vertical  shaft  of  the  de- 
vice, which  also  carries  the  distributor,  and  in 
this  combined  form  is  known  as  a  unisparker. 

The  ratchet  A  engages  the  lifter  B  and  as  A- 
rotates,  its  teeth  or  notches  successively  tend  to 
draw  B  with  them  against  the  tension  of  the 
spring  C.  In  doing  so  the  head  of  B  strikes 
the  swinging  lever  of  hammer  D,  the  motion  of 
which  in  both  directions  is  limited  as  shown, 
and  the  hammer  communicates  the  blow  to  the 
contact  spring  E,  bringing  the  contact  points 
together  momentarily.  E  is  a  compound  spring, 
the  straight  member  of  which  carries  the  mov- 
able contact,  while  the  stationary  contact  F  is 
mounted  opposite  it.  The  second  member  of 
this  compound  spring  is  curved  at  its  end  to  en- 
gage the  straight  member.  Ordinarily,  the 
straight  spring  blade  is  held  under  the  tension 
of  the  curved  blade  and  the  contact  points  are 
held  apart. 

When  the  curved  blade  is  struck  by  the  ham- 
mer D,  the  points  come  into  contact  with  each 
other.     The  curved  blade,  however,  is  thrown 


84  Care  of  Automobiles. 


Diagrams   showing  operation  of  Atwater   Kent 
interrupter. 


Care  of  Ignition  Systems. 


85 


over  further  by  impact  and  its  hook  leaves  the 
straight  blade.  Upon  reaching  the  limit  of  its 
movement,  it  flies  back  and  strikes  the  end  of 
the  straight  blade  a  blow,  causing  a  very  sharp 
break  of  circuit.  This  movement  is  so  extremely 
rapid  that  it  cannot  be  detected  by  the  unaided 
eye,  so  that  its  working  cannot  be  tested  simply 
by  watching  the  operation  of  the  contacts,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  magneto  interrupter.  The  diagram 
shows  the  successive  movements  of  the  parts 


Location  of  condenser  in  Atwater  Kent 
breaker. 


open  circuit 


during  a  single  cycle.  In  A  a  notch  of  the 
ratchet  has  engaged  B  and  is  drawing,  the  lifter 
against  the  tension  of  the  spring. 

In  the  second  sketch,  B,  the  hook  is  just  being 
released.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  lifter  is  so 
shaped  that  with  the  hook  in  the  notch  of  the 
ratchet  the  cam  head  of  the  lifter  does  not  touck 
the  hammer  so  that  on  the  outward  movement 


86  Care  of  Automobiles. 

of  B  no  contact  is  made.  In  C,  the  lifter  is 
riding  back  over  the  rounded  portion  of  the 
ratchet  and  is  striking  the  hammer  D,  which  in 
turn  pushes  E  for  a  brief  instant  against  F.  The 
return  of  B  to  the  position  shown  in  sketch  D 
is  so  rapid  that  the  eye  cannot  follow  the  move- 
ment of  the  parts  D  and  E,  which,  to  all  ap- 
pearances, remain  stationary. 

Adjustment  of  the  contact  points  is  made  by 
removing  one  of  the  three  washers  from  under 
the  head  of  the  contact  screw  F,  and  the  gap 
should  be  .010  to  .012  inch,  never  exceeding  the 
lat)ter.  Where  more  accurate  means  of  deter- 
mining this  distance  are  not  available,  it  may  be 
gaged  with  a  piece  of  manilla  wrapping  paper, 
which  should  be  perfectly  smooth.  With  the  aid 
of  a  micrometer,  a  sheet  of  paper  of  the  proper 
thickness  can  be  selected.  The  contact  points 
are  of  tungsten,  and,  as  the  moving  parts  all  are 
of  glass-hard  steel,  very  accurately  machined, 
the  wear  is  negligable,  so  that  the  adjustment  is 
not  required  oftener  than  once  in,  perhaps, 
10,000  miles,  and  replacement  of  contacts  after 
running,  perhaps,  50,000  miles.  ^ 

In  the  latest  models  of  this  K3  type  of  ignition 
system,  the  condenser  is  located  within  the 
timer-distributor  and  in  very  close  proximity 
to  the  contacts.  This  location  of  the  condenser 
is  shown  in  another  diagram.  An  automatic 
spark  advance  mechanism  is  provided,  which 
operates  by  centrifugal  force,  and  this  automati- 
cally advances  the  time  at  which  the  contact  is 
made  and  broken  to  compensate  for  the  increase 
in  speed  of  the  motor. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
The  Starter-Lighter  System  Analyzed. 

A  Little  Study  Reveals  That  the  Electric  Start- 
ing, Lighting  and  Ignition  System  Is  Quite 
Simple — Chart  Which  Aids  in  Trouble  Trac- 
ing and  Correction. 

PERHAPS  taking  the  car  as  a  whole,  there 
is  no  one  system  incidental  to  its  correct 
functioning  that  is  so  little  understood  as  the 
electric  lighting  and  starting  system.  To  most 
owners,  even  to  motorists  of  experience  who 
know  what  each  and  every  part  of  the  car  is  for 
and  just  how  to  care  for  it,  the  starting  and 
lighting  system  remains  as  a  closed  book. 

Yet  the  system  is  simplicity  itself,  and  what 
appear  on  the  surface  to  be  intricacies,  dissolve 
into  thin  air  once  the  light  of  reason  is  turned  on 
this,  the  most  happy  of  all  conveniences  that  has 
been  applied  to  the  modern  automobile. 

The  starting  system,  taken  as  a  whole,  com- 
prises three  units,  and  no  one  of  the  three  is 
more  important  than  the  other.  Each  is  essen- 
tial to  the  correct  functioning  of  the  complete 
system.  The  first  unit  is  the  dynamo  or  gen- 
erator, the  purpose  of  which  is  to  convert  some 
of  the  power  of  the  engine  into  electrical  energy 
a  portion  of  which  is  used  to  light  the  lights, 
some  to  start  the  engine,  and  in  some  cases  a  por- 
tion to  furnish  the  ignition  current.  As  the 
dynamo  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an  elec- 
trical "pump"  which  pumps  electricity  instead 
of  water  or  air,  and  as  it  receives  its  necessary 
power  from  the  engine,  it  is  quite  evident  that 
when  the  engine  is  not  running,  the  dynamo  is 
worthless  as  a  current  producer. 

(87) 


88  Care  of  Automobiles. 

That  fact,  therefore,  necessitates  the  use  of 
some  sort  of  a  device  to  store  up  the  current 
generated  when  the  engine  is  running  for  use 
to  start  the  motor',  supply  the  lights  and  ignition 
when  the  engine  is  inoperative.  That  function 
is  performed  by  the  "storage  battery,"  which  it 
can  be  seen  is  no  les's  important  than  the  current 
generator  itself. 

In  order  to  turn  the  engine  over  a  sufficient 
number  of  times  for  it  to  take  up  its  own  cycle 
of  operations,  a  third  unit,  called  a  starting 
motor,  is  provided.  It  takes  the  current  that  has 
been  stored  up  in  the  storage  battery  and  recon- 
verts it  into  njechanical  energy  which  is  utilized 
to  spin  the  engine  through  the  intermediary  of  a 
train  of  gears  or  a  silent  chain.  Without  the 
starting  motor,  there  would  be  scant  use  for  the 
other  two  units. 

As  for  the  dynamo:  It  comprises  a  number 
of  coils  of  wire  closely  wound  upon  a  slotted 
soft  iron  core  which  is  rotated  at  high  speed  by 
the  engine  in  a  suitably  shaped  space  between 
the  poles  of  two  electro  magnets.  Provision  is 
made  by  means  of  a  commutator,  or  rotary 
switch  mounted  on  the  shaft,  to  so  connect  the 
coils  of  wire  on  the  rotating  member  or  "arma- 
ture" as  to  turn  part  of  the  current  generated  in 
them  through  the  coils  on  the  electromagnets  or 
"field  coils,"  thus  increasing  their  strength;  the 
remainder  of  the  current  goes  to  the  battery  or 
lamps,  as  the  case  may  be.  As  the  amount  of 
current  generated  depends  almost  directly  upon 
the  speed  with  which  the  armature  is  rotated  by 
the  engine,  provision  is  made  by  means  of  a 
regulator  of  one  sort  or  another  to  cut  down  the 
current  at  high  engine  speeds  and  thus  keep  the 
output  constant  so  that  the  lights  will  not  flicker 
and  the  charging  rate  to  the  battery  will  not  run 
too  high  and  result  in  "gassing." 


The  Starter-Lighter  System.         89 

While  there  are  as  many  different  types  ot 
regulators  in  use  as  there  are  makes  of  auto- 
mobiles, for  the  most  part  regulation  is  effected 
by  decreasing  the  amount  of  current  passing 
through  the  field  coils  at  high  speeds".  In  some 
cases  this  is  accomplished  by  inserting  a  variable 
resistance,  or  "current  brake,"  in  the  field  cir- 
cuit so  that  the  higher  the  rate  of  speed  the 
harder  it  is  for  current  to  pass  through  this 
"brake"  and  consequently  the  less  that  will  flow. 

The  system  that  has  found  most  favor  in  this 
country  employs  a  vibrating  reed,  mi4ch  like  the 
common  "buzzer"  which  summons  the  housewife 
to  the  kitchen  door.  This  is  placed  so  that  when 
it  "buzzes,"  the  parting  contacts  open  the  field 
circuit.  The  circuit  of  the  operating  magnet  is 
connected  so  that  it  gets  the  full  benefit  of  the 
dynamo  current.  At  low  speed,  the  buzzer  does 
not  operate,  but  at  high  speed  it  begins  and  inter- 
mittently introduces  resistance  into  the  field  cir- 
cuit and  cuts  down  the  field  circuit.  The  faster 
the  car  goes  the  faster  the  buzzer  vibrates  and  the 
greater  the  resistance.  Hence  the  current  is  kept 
practically  constant. 

Another  system  uses  an  iron  wire  coil  which 
heats  up  when  current  passes  through  it.  At  high 
temperatures,  any  further  increase  enormously 
increases  the  resistance  of  the  iron.  When  the 
current  gets  strong  enough  to  heat  the  iron  coil 
beyond  this  critical  temperature,  therefore,  it  is 
automatically  choked  and  cut  down. 

There  is  another  little  device  which  is  of  the 
utmost  importance.  It  is  the  automatic  cutout 
which  is  placed  in  the  circuit  between  the  dynamo 
and  the  battery  and  which  serves  to  disconnect  the 
two  when  the  dynamo  is  not  running.  This  pre- 
vents the  battery  current  from  running  back 
through  the  dynamo  and  being  wasted.  This  de- 
vice consists   simply  of  an  electromagnet  con- 


90  Care  of  Automobiles. 

nected  in  the  circuit,  the  armature  being  normally 
held  away  from  the  magnet  by  means  of  a  spring. 
In  this  position  the  circuit  between  the  dynamo 
gets  under  way,  however,  at  a  predetermined 
point  the  pull  of  the  magnet  due  to  the  current 
passing  through  it  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the 
opposition  of  the  spring  and  the  armature  of  the 
magnet  is  attracted  and  closes  the  circuit.  Quite 
as  a  matter  of  course,  when  the  speed  falls  off 
and  the  current  strength  drops,  the  spring  again 
pulls  the  armature  away  thus  opening  the  circuit 
The  popular  idea  in  connection  with  a  storage 
battery  is  that  when  a  current  of  electricity  is 
passed  through  the  storage  battery,  that  the  cur- 
rent is  "stored"  in  the  battery.  This  is  not  the 
case  at  all.  A  "fully  charged"  battery  does  not 
contain  any  electricity.  What  actually  takes 
place  is  this — when  a  current  is  passed  through 
the  battery  certain  elements  in  the  storage  battery 
plates  are  combined  with  the  solution  or  elec- 
trolyte in  the  battery  by  a  purely  chemical  pro- 
cess. This  is  why  the  hydrometer  reading  of  the 
solution  in  a  fully  charged  battery  is  much  higher 
than  that  of  a  discharged  battery,  because  the 
solution  is  heavier,  having  in  it  some  of  the  ele- 
ments which  were  in  the  plates  of  the  battery 
before  the  charging  took  place.  When  the  Battery 
is  discharged  the  action  which  takes  place  is  that 
the  chemicals  in  the  solution  or  electrolyte  are 
again  combined  with  the  plates  in  the  storage 
battery,  through  another  chemical  action,  and 
that  is  the  reason  why  the  hydrometer  reading  on 
a  discharged  battery  is  materially  lower  than  that 
on  a  fully  charged  battery.  As  mentioned,  there 
is  no  electrical  energy  stored  up  in  the  storage 
battery  when  it  is  charged.  The  current  which 
is  taken  from  a  fully  charged  battery  is  generated 
through  the  chemical   action  described,  and  is 


The  Starter-Lighter  System.         91 

generated  only  at  the  time  it  is  being  taken  from 
the  battery. 

When  a  battery  is  charged  certain  elements  in 
the  solution  are  constantly  striving  to  again  com- 
bine with  the  elements  in  the  plates,  or  to  return 
to  the  condition  which  they  were  in  before  the 
battery  was  charged.  This  explains  the  reason 
for  the  storage  battery  gradually  discharging  it- 
self when  it  is  not  in  use. 

On  the  other  hand  when  a  storage  battery  is 
discharged,  if  it  is  left  in  that  condition  it  will 
ruin  itself  in  a  short  time.  This  is  due  to  an  ac- 
tion called  "sulphating." 

A  storage  battery  will  last  longer  and  can  be 
kept  in  good  condition  most  easily  when  it  is  in 
constant  use,  that  is  to  say,  when  it  is  being 
charged  and  used  and  recharged  right  along.  A 
writer  once  described  a  storage  battery  very  aptly 
when  he  said  it  was  "a  nervous  proposition"  and 
that  it  needed  constant  "excitement."  This  is 
really  the  situation  in  a  nutshell.  To  keep  your 
storage  battery  in  good  shape  it  ^ould  be  kept 
in  service. 

To  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  starting  motor 
is  quite  identical  in  principle  to  the'  dynamo.  It 
comprises  a  wirewound  rotating  armature,  posi- 
tioned between  the  field  pieces,  and  also  has  a 
commutator.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  practically  any 
dynamo  can  be  used  as  a  'motor,  or  vice  versa ; 
but  because  of  their  different  uses,  some  slight 
alterations  have  been  made  in  the  machines  which 
distinguishes  the  one  from  the  other.  The  start- 
ing motor,  for  instance,  is  wound  with  much 
coarser  wire  than  the  automobile  dynamo,  the 
reason  being  that  it  must  develop  a  great  deal 
of  power  and  to  do  that  needs  a  whole  lot  of 
current.  Fine  wire  would  burn  out  under  the 
strain.    The  dynamo,  on  the  other  hand,  goes  on 


92  Care  of  Automobiles. 

pumping  only  a  small  amount  of  current  and  does 
not  need  heavy  wire. 

In  some  instances,  the  function  of  both  dynamo 
and  starting  motor  are  combined  in  a  single  in- 
strument which  is  then  called  a  motor-generator, 
and  such  a  system  is  designated  by  the  automo- 
bile maker  as  a  "single  unit"  system  as  against 
the  "two  unit"  system  wherein  dynamo  and 
starting  motor  are  each  separate  units. 

The  following  tabulation  will  be  found  useful 
in  determining  when  the  electric  starting  and 
lighting  system  is  at  fault  and  locating  troubles: 

SYMPTOMS  OF  TROUBLE. 

The  Causes  of  Troubles  can  he  Determined  by  a 

Study  of  Symptoms. 

Ammeter  does  not  indicate  "Charge"  engine 
speeded  up,  but  indicates  "Discharge"  when 
lights  are  turned  on,  engine  at  rest. 

Dynamo  or  regulator  not  working  properly. 
Dynamo  brushes  do  not   make  firm  contact  with 

commutator. 
Dynamo  belt  too  loose  to  drive  dynamo  at  proper 

speed. 
Car  speed  too  low. 

Ammeter  does  not  indicate  "Charge"  lights  off, 
engine  speeded  up,  and  does  not  indicate  "Dis- 
charge" lights  on,  engine  at  rest. 

Open  or  loose  connection  in  the  battery  circuit  or 

in  battery  itself. 
Battery  terminals  not  securely  connected. 
Dynamo  terminals  loose. 

Ammeter  may  be  at  fault. 

« 

Ammeter  indicates  "Discharge"  lights  turned 
off,  engine  at  rest. 

Ammeter  pointer  bent. 

Insulation  on  wires  injured,  permitting  contact  with 

frame,  causing  short  circuit. 
Cutout  not  operating  properly. 


The  Starter-Lighter  System.         93 

Ammeter  indicates  "Charge"  engine  at  rest. 
Pointer  bent. 

Ammeter  "Charge"  indications  below  normal. 
Dynamo  speed  low. 
Regulator  not  functioning  properly. 
Excessive  lamp  load. 
Commutator  dirty. 
Generator  defective. 

Ammeter  "Charge"  indications  above  normal. 

Regulator  not  functioning  properly. 

Short  circuit  in  battery  or  in  charging  circuit. 

Ammeter  "Discharge"  indications  above  nor- 
mal, engine  at  rest. 

Lamp  load  excessive. 

Lamp  wires  in  contact  with  frame. 

Regulator  cutout  points  stuck. 

Ammeter    pointer    jerks    intermittently    from 
"Charge"  to  Neutral  while  engine  is  speeded  up. 

Short  circuit  in  system. 

Loose  connection  in  dynamo  circuit. 

Brushes  making  poor  contact. 

Fuses  blow  repeatedly. 

Lamp  wires  in  contact  with  frame. 

Lamps  defective.     Short  circuited.     Try  new  bulb. 

Engine  cranking  speed  very  low. 

Battery  almost  discharged. 

Battery  sulphated. 

Engine  stiff. 

Starting  cable  not  firmly  secured  to  battery,  starting 

switch,  and  motor. 
Motor  brushes  making  poor  contact. 

Starting  motor  daes  not  rotate. 

Battery  may  be  discharged. 
Battery  may  be  sulphated  or  injured. 
Starting  switch  not  making  good  contact. 
Motor  brush  may  not  make  contact  with  commu- 
tator. 
Battery  terminals  may  not  make  firm  contact. 


94  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Lamps  will  not  light,  but  starter  cranks  engine. 

Lamps  burned  out  or  filament  broken.     Try  new 

bulb. 
System  short-circuited. 
System  open  circuited. 

Lamps  seem  to  burn  brightly  but  fail  to  illum- 
inate road  sufficiently. 

Lamps  out  of  focus. 

Rays  of  light  directed  too  far  upwards. 

Reflectors  tarnished. 

Lamps  burn  dimly  or  not  at  all. 

Battery  weak,  discharged. 

Lamps  old,  blackened.    Try  new  bulbs. 

System  may  be  short-circuited. 

Resistance  of  circuit  high,  due  to  loose  or  dirty  wire 

connections. 
Lamp  bulbs  may  be  of  too  high  voltage., 

Lamps  blacken  or  burn  out  quickly. 

Lamps  not  of  the  proper  voltage. 

Dynamo  or  regulator  not  working  properly. 

Lamps  defective,  poor  grade. 

Loose  connection  between  generator  and  battery. 

Lamps  flicker  and  ammeter  unsteady. 

Loose  connection  in  lamp  wires. 

Loose  connection  between  battery  and  dynamo. 

Loose  contact  at  lamp  connector  or  at  lamp  bulb. 

Poor  contact  between  fuses  and  fuse  clips;  fuse 
clips  must  securely  clamp  fuse  ends. 

Exposed  wire  touching  frame  intermittently,  caus- 
ing short  circuit. 

Lighting  switch  contacts  burned. 

Lamps  burn  very  dimly  or  not  at  all  when 
starting  pedal  is  operated. 

Battery  very  weak,  almost  discharged. 
Battery  injured,  due  to  lack  of  water. 
Battery  cables  not  rigidly  connected  to  battery  or 
motor  wiring.  . 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
Operation  of  Eclipse-Bendix  Starter  Drive. 


Simplicity  of  Important  Unit  Between  Starter 
Motor  and  Engine  Beclouds  Its  Action- — Has 
Been  Adopted  by  Most  Starter  Makers  and 
Does  Away  With  Hand  Operated  Devices. 

ONE  of  the  most  important  elements  in  the 
operation  of  any  electric  starting  system  is 
the  mechanism  which  connects  the  electric 
starting  motor  to  the  engine  when  the  latter  is  to 
be  started,  and  disconnects  it  when  the  motor  has 
taken  up  its  own  cycle  of-  operations.  Such  a  de- 
vice is  essential,  for  it  is  obvious  that  to  drag  a 
heavy  starting  motor  would  put  an  extra  load  on 
the  engine  and  detract  from  its  "snap"  and  pull- 
ing powers,  while  at  the  same  time  the  starting 
motor,  save  in  rare  instances  when  it  is  built  in  a 
single  unit  with  the  dynamo,  is  not  built  for  con- 
tinued operation. 

The  first  starting  systems  usually  were  pro- 
vided with  a  shifting  gear  which  was  meshed  with 
teeth  on  the  periphery  of  the  flywheel  through  the 
agency  of  a  hand  lever  or  pedal  when  the  motor 
was  to  be  started  and  thrown  out  of  engagement 
again  and  when  the  engine  began  to  fire.  Ar- 
rangements of  this  sort  still  persist,  but  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  starter  manufacturers  have 
thrown  them  into  the  discard  and  applied  the 
Eclipse-Bendix  drive.  This  little  device  auto- 
matically engages  and  disengages  the  starting 
motor  at  the  proper  times,  without  the  slightest 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  operator  and  its  al- 
most universal  application  to  starting  systems 
makes  a  complete  description  of  it,  together  with 

(95) 


96  Care  of  /Automobiles. 

a  few  words  on  its  care,  practically  a  necessity 
in  a  work  of  this  kind. 

The  design  of  the  Eclipse-Bendix  Drive  is  so 
simple  that  at  first  it  is  hard  to  understand  how 
it  performs  so  many  automatic  movements  and 
functions. 

The  device  consists  of  a  hollow  shaft  hav- 
ing screw  threads  on  the  outside,  and  a  hol- 
low gear  having  screw  threads  on  the  inside;  so 
that  the  gear  screws  on  the  shaft  like  a  nut 
on  a  bolt.  A  circular  weight  is  fastened  to  the 
gear,  and  is  slightly  out  of  balance.  A  coil  spring 
connects  the  electric  motor  shaft  and  the  hollow 
screw  shaft.    (See  Fig.  1.) 

When  the  electric  motor  starts  it  drives 
through  the  spring  and  turns  the  screw  shaft. 
Because  of  the  weight  the  gear  is  too  heavy  to 
turn  with  the  screw  shaft,  and  because  the  gear 
does  not  turn  it  must  move  along  the  screw  shaft 
(just  the  same  as  if  you  turned  a  bolt  having  a 
nut  on  it,  and  kept  holding  the  nut  with  your  fin- 
gers to  keep  it  from  turning  so  that  it  would  be 
screwed  along  the  bolt).  After  the  screw  gear 
has  moved  along  the  screw  shaft  and  engages 
with  the  flywheel  gear,  it  then  keeps  moving  along 
until  it  reaches  the  stop  at  the  end  of  the  screw 
shaft.  The  two  gears  then  are  fully  meshed,  and 
it  is  obvious  that  when  the  screw  gear  has  reached 
the  stop  it  can  not  move  any  farther,  and  it  then 
must  turn  with  the  screw  shaft.  (See  Fig.  2.) 
At  this  particular  moment  the  screw  shaft  and 
electric  motor  are  revolving  at  a  great  speed,  and 
this  great  blow  and  the  power  of  the  electric  mo- 
tor are  both  taken  through  the  coil  spring.  The 
spring  keeps  coiling  tmtil  all  this  power  has  been 
applied  to  the  flywheel  gear  and  the  engine  starts 
turning. 

As  soon  as  the  engine  starts  exploding  and  runs 


Eclipse-Bendix  Starter  Drive.       97 


"IT'S  AUTOMATIC ' 

Arrows  ShowDirociion  ot  Roiaiion 


Eclipse  P 


Figure  No.  1- 
BpfbreCiyriikiniF, 


to  be  automatically 
■4  ric  motor  ii>  started 


Starts  ^ 


She-.. 


illy  nieshetl  and  about  to  crank.  Tht:  icrcw 
utions  per  minute  and  stores  this  terrific 
anins;  tht; fiv  whffl andstartinK theeneine. 


98  Care  of  Automobiles. 

under  its  own  power,  the  flywheel,  of  course, 
turns  much  faster  than  it  was  cranked  by  the 
starter.  Because  it  is  now  turning  so  much  faster, 
it  increases  the  speed  of  the  screw  gear  so  that 
the  latter  runs  faster  than  the  screw  shaft  on 
which  it  is  mounted.  It  is,  therefore,  plain  and 
easy  to  understand,  that  if  the  screw  gear  runs 
faster  than  the  screw  shaft,  it  will  be  screwed 
on  the  threads  of  the  shaft  (like  a  nut  on  a  bolt) 
until  it  has  been  screwed  out  of  mesh  with  the 
flywheel  gear. 

This  demeshing  movement  is  entirely  auto- 
matic, and  eliminates  the  use  of  an  overrunning 
clutch.  And  now  that  the  screw  gear  -is  out  of 
mesh,  it  is  natural  to  suppose,  if  the  electric  mo- 
tor keeps  running,  that  the  gear  will  be  automati- 
cally screwed  right  back  into  mesh  with  the  fly- 
wheel gear.  But  the  "unbalanced  weight  on  the 
screw  gear  now  performs  its  automatic  function. 
,That  is,  being  slightly  out  of  balance,  the  weight 
twists  or  cocks  the  screw  gear  so  that  it  clutches 
and  binds  on  the  screw  shaft  and  turns  with  it. 
This  automatic  clutching  is  all  due  to  the.  centri- 
fugal force  of  the  unbalanced  weight.  (See 
Fig.  3.) 

When  the  electric  motor  stops  running,  the 
screw  gear  has  been  fully  screwed  away  from  the 
flywheel  gear,  and  if  remains  in  that  retarded  po- 
sition until  it  is  again  required  to  start  the  en- 
gine. 

The  Eclipse-Bendix  Drive  should  not  require 
any  care  or  attention  during  the  life  of  a  motor 
car. 

The  screw  shaft  should  never  be  oiled  or  lubri- 
cated. It  is  not  necessary — in  fact,  the  screw 
gear  works  to  best  advantage  when  the  screw 
shaft  is  dry. 

Through  accident  or  otherwise,  should  the  fly- 
wheel ever  be  entirely  exposed  and  unprotected, 


Eclipse-Bendix  Starter  Drive.       99 

and  the  flywheel  gear  possibly  drag  in  wet  mud, 
a  slight  inconvenience  may  result  therefrom.  But 
such  a  condition  and  operation  of  a  car  is,  of 
course,  unreasonable.  The  gear  on  the  screw 
shaft  has  an  automatic  self-cleaning  action,  but, 
in  any  extreme  case,  it  may  then  be  necessary  to 
clean  the  screw.  Therefore,  a  slight  inconve- 
nience is  the  only  penalty  for  such  careless  mis- 
use of  the  car,  by  having  it  in  such  an  unprotected 
condition. 

Back  fires  are  unnecessary,  because  the  driver 
of  a  car  should  have  the  spark  lever  properly  re- 
tarded, and  the  gas  throttle  should  not  be  wide 
open,  but  should  only  be  moved  over  enough  for 
starting.  With  the  spark  and  throttle  levers  only 
slightly  advanced,  back  fires  are  avoided  and  the 
engine  starts  easiest  and  quickest.  In  case  of  a 
back  fire,  the  explosive  shock  is  taken  through  the 
coil  spring,  which  absorbs  most  of  the  destructive 
blow,  and  is  another  automatic  feature  of  the 
Eclipse-Bendix  Drive.  As  an  extra  precaution 
against  back  fires  the  drive  spring  and  drive 
screws  are  designed  with  large  factors  of  safety. 

The  teeth  on  the  screw  gear  and  flywheel  are 
chamfered  or  pointed  on  only  one  side,  to  make 
the  meshing  natural  and  easy.  However,  should 
the  teeth  meet  end  to  end,  the  screw  shaft  itself 
is  designed  to  automatically  move  backwards 
against  and  compress  the  coil  spring.  This  gives 
the  screw  gear  time  enough  to  turn  and  enter  the 
flywheel  gear.  Should  sticking  of  gears  ever 
occur,  they  can  be  released  by  throwing  in  the 
clutch  and  moving  the  car.  Such  trouble  would 
be  due  to  incorrect  chamfering  or  inaccurate 
alignment  of  the  gears.  Also  it  might  be  due  to 
the. binding  of  the  drive  parts  and  prevent  com- 
pressing and  proper  functioning.  Such  defects 
should  be  corrected. 


100  Care  of  Automobiles. 

If  while  the  engine  is  running  the  electric  mo- 
tor should  be  accidentally  started,  the  screw  gear 
will,  of  course,  screw  over  against  the  turning 
flywheel  gear.  But  instead  of  the  clashing  and 
smashing  of  gears  that  might  be  expected,  there 
is  no  damage  whatever,  as  the  gears  simply  touch 
once.  This  is  because  the  flywheel  gear  will  speed 
up  the  screw  gear,  and  thus  automatically  screw 
it  away.  The  turning  screw  gear  will  then  auto- 
matically clutch  and  bind  on  the  screw  shaft  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  when  it  is  cranking 
and  has  been  demeshed  when  the  engine  starts 
exploding. 

The  Eclipse-Bendix  Drive  is  guaranteed 
against  defective  material  and  workmanship.  All 
parts  are  made  of  specially  selected  steels  and 
properly  heat  treated.  Every  care  is  taken  to 
give  complete  satisfaction. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
Supreme   Importance  of  Battery   Care. 

Batteries  Will  Give  No  Trouble  If  Attended  to 
Regularly  and  Properly — Full  and  Explicit 
Rules  For  Battery  Care  and  Upkeep — The 
Rules  Are  Inflexible. 

AS  for  the  mechanical  elements  of  the  start- 
ing and  lighting  system,  aside  from  occa- 
sional lubrication  according  to  directions 
furnished  by  the  maker,  there  is  but  little  for  the 
owner  or  driver  to  do,  and  nothing  to  worry 
about.  Nor,  with  the  exception  of  the  storage  bat- 
tery, is  there  anything  in  the  electrical  end  of  the 
system  that  needs  constant  attention.  The  bat- 
tery, however,  does  require  a  certain  amount  of 
attention  which,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  ob- 
tained, and  freedom  from  trouble  assured,  must 
be  done  with  the  regularity  of  clock  work. 

And  in  speaking  of  the  battery  and  battery 
care,  there  is  one  little  point  that  must  never  be 
fx)rgotten.  Most  rules  and  regulations  are  more 
or  less  flexible,  but  that  is  not  the  case  with  the 
storage  battery  instructions.  They  must  be  fol- 
lowed to  the  letter.  A  storage  battery  is  an  ex- 
pensive and  at  the  same  time  a  delicate  me- 
chanism, and  it  does  not  pay  to  experiment  with 
it.  No  one  yet,  barring  accident,  had  trouble 
with  a  battery  who  was  careful  to  follow  the  in- 
structions laid  down  for  its  care  to  the  letter. 
Now  for  the  instructions. 

1.     Batteries  must  be  properly  installed. 

Keep  battery  securely  fastened  in  place. 

Battery  must  be  accessible  to  facilitate  regular 
adding  of  water,  and  occasional  testing  of  solu- 

(101) 


102  Care  oj  Automobiles. 

tion.  Battery  compartments  must  be  ventilated 
and  drained,  and  all  water,  oil  and  dirt  kept  out. 
Battery  should  have  free  air  space  on  all  sides, 
should  rest  on  cleats  rather  than  on  solid  bottom 
and  holding  devices  should  grip  case  or  case  han- 
dles. A  cover,  cleat  or  bar  pressing  down  on  the 
cells  or  terminals  should  not  be  used. 

2.  Keep  battery  and  interior  of  battery  com- 
partment wiped  clean  and  dry. 

Do  not  permit  an  open  flame  near  the  battery. 

Keep  all  small  articles,  especially  of  metal,  out 
of  and  away  from  the  battery.  Keep  terminals 
and  connections  coated  with  vaseline  or  grease. 
If  solution  has  slopped  or  spilled,  wipe  off  with 
waste,  wet  with  ammonia  water. 

3.  Pure  zvatcr  must  he  added  to  all  cells  regu- 
larly and  at  sufficiently  frequent  intervals  to  keep 
the  solution  at  the  proper  height. 

The  proper  height  for  the  solution  is  usually 
given  on  the  instruction  or  name-plate  on  the  bat- 
tery. In  all  cases  the  solution  must  cover  the 
battery  plates. 

The  frequency  with  which  water  must  be 
added  depends  largely  upon  the  battery,  the  sys- 
tem with  which  it  is  used  and  the  conditions  of 
operation.  Once  every  two  weeks  is  recom- 
mended as  good  practice  in  cool  weather;  once 
every  week  in  hot  weather. 

Plugs  must  be  removed  to  add  water ;  then  re- 
placed and  screwed  home  after  filling. 

Do  not  use  acid  or  electrolyte,  only  pure  water. 

Do  not, use  any  water  known  to  contain  even 
small  quantities  of  salts  of  any  kind.  Distilled 
water,  melted  artificial  ice  or  fresh  rain  water 
are  recommended. 

Use  only  a  clean,  non-metallic  vessel. 

Add  water  regularly,  although  the  battery  may 
seem  to  work  all  right  without  it. 


Care  of  Battery.  103 

4.  The  best  way  to  ascertain  the  condition  of 
the  battery  is  to  test  the  specific  gravity  (density) 
cf  the  solution  in  each  cell  with  a  hydrometer. 

This  should  be  done  regularly. 

A  convenient  time  is  at  the  time  of  adding 
water,  but  the  reading  should  be  taken  before 
rather  than  after,  adding  the  water. 

.  i.  reliable  specific  gravity  test  cannot  be  made 
after  adding  water  and  before  it  has  been  mixed 
by  charging  the  battery  or  by  running  the  car. 

A  common  and  convenient  form  of  testing  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  is  with  a  hydro- 
meter syringe.  To  take  a  reading  insert  the  end 
of  the  rubber  tube  in  the  cell.  Squeeze  and  then 
slowly  release  the  rubber  bulb,  drawing  up  elec- 


tiolyte  from  the  cell  until  the  hydrometer  floats. 
The  reading  on  the  graduated  stem  of  the  hydro- 
meter at  the  point  where  it  emerges  from  the 
solution  is  the  specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte. 
After  testing,  the  electrolyte  must  always  be  re- 
turned to  the  cell  from  which  it  was  drawn. 

The  gravity  reading  is  expressed  in  "Points," 
thus  the  difference  between  1,250  and  1,275  is 
2f  points. 

5.  When  all  cells  are  in  good  order  the  gravity 
will  test  about  the  same  (within  25  points)  in  all. 

Gravity  above  1,200  indicates  battery  more  than 
half  charged. 

Gravity  below  1,200  but  above  1,150  indicates 
battery  less  than  half  charged. 

When  battery  is  found  to  be  half  discharged 
use  lamps  sparingly  until  by  charging  the  battery 
the  gravity  is  restored  to  at  least  1,200.  (See 
section  8.) 


104  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Gravity  below  1,100  indicates  battery  com- 
pletely discharged  or  "run  down." 

A  run  down  battery  should  he  given  a  full 
charge  at  once. 

A  run  down  battery  is  always  the  result  of  lack 
of  charge  or  waste  of  current.  If,  after  having 
been  fully  charged  the  battery  soon  runs  down 
again  there  is  trouble  somewhere  else  in  the  sys- 
tem, which  should  be  located  and  corrected. 

Putting  acid  or  electrolyte  into  the  cells  to 
bring  up  specific  gravity  can  do  no  good  and  may 
do  great  harm.  Acid  or  electrolyte  should  never 
ht  put  into  the  battery  except  by  an  experienced 
battery  man. 

6  Gravity  in  one  cell  markedly  lower  than  in 
the  other,  especially  if  successive  readings  show 
the  difference  to  be  increasing,  indicates  that  the 
cell  is  not  in  good  order. 

Tf  the  cell  also  regularly  requires  more  water 
than  the  others,  a  leaky  jar  is  indicated. 

Even  a  slow  leak  will  rob  a  cell  of  all  of  its 
electrolyte  in  time,  and  a  leaky  jar  should  be  im- 
mediately replaced  with  a  good  one. 

If  there  is  no  leak  and  if  the  gravity  is,  or  be- 
comes, 50  to  75  points  below  that  in  the  other 
dells,  a  partial  short  circuit  or  other  trouble 
within  the  cells  is  indicated. 

A  partial  short  circuit  may,  if  neglected,  seri- 
ously injure  the  battery  and  should  receive  the 
prompt  attention  of  a  good  battery  repair  man. 

7.  A  battery  charge  is  complete  wheii,  with 
charging  current  flowing  at  the  rate  given  on  the 
instruction  plate  on  the  battery,  all  cells  are  gas- 
sing (bubbling)  freely  and  evenly  and  the  gravity 
of  all  cells  has  shown  no  further  rise  during  one 
hour. 

The  gravity  of  the  solution  in  cells  fully 
charged  as  above  is  1,275"  to  1,300. 


V 

Care  of  Battery.  105 

8.  The  best  results  in  both  starting  and  hght- 
ing  service  will  be  obtained  when  the  system  is  so 
designed  and  adjusted  that  the  battery  is  normally 
kept  well  charged,  but  without  excessive  over- 
charging. 

If,  for  any  reason,  an  extra  charge  to  maxi- 
niuin  specific  gravity  is  needed,  it  may  be  accom- 
plished by  running  the  engine  idle,  or  by  using 
direct  current  from  an  outside  source. 

In  charging  from  an  outside  source, use  direct 
current  only.  Limit  the  current  to  the  proper 
rate  in  amperes  by  connecting  a  suitable  resist- 
ance in  series  with  the  battery.  Incandescent 
lamps  are  convenient  for  this  purpose. 

Connect  the  positive  battery  terminal  (painted 
red,  or  marked  POS  or  P  or  -j-)  to  the  positive 
charging  wire  and  negative  to  negative.  If  re- 
versed, serious  injury  may  result.  Test  charging 
wires  for  positive  and  negative  with  a  voltmeter 
or  by  dipping  the  ends  in  a  glass  of  water  con- 
taining a  few  drops  of  electrolyte,  when  bubbles 
will  form  on  the  negative  wire. 

9.  A  battery  which  is  to  stand  idle  should  first 
be  fully  charged. 

A  battery  not  in  active  service  may  be  kept  in 
condition  for  use  by  giving  it  a  refreshing  charge 
at  least  once  every  month,  but  should  preferably 
also  be  given  a  thorough  charge,  after  an  idle 
period,  before  it  is  replaced  in  service. 

A  battery  which  has  stood  idle  for  more  than 
two  months  should  be  charged  at  one-half  normal 
r?.te  to  maximum  gravity  before  again  being 
phiced  into  service. 

It  is  not  wise  to  permit  a  battery  to  stand  for 
n'ore  than  six  months  without  charging. 

In  conclusion,  it  might  be  well  to  point  out 
thr:t  with  the  first  flurries  of  real  winter,  it  is 
well  for  motorists  to  heed  the  "test  your  battery" 
advice.     During  the  summer  months  the  battery 


106  Care  of  Automobiles. 

is  kept  well  charged  because  owners  drive  their 
cars  sufficient  to  keep  the  battery  in  good  shape, 
bill"  in  the  winter  months,  with  consequent  less 
aniGunt  of  driving,  automobile  batteries  some- 
times "run  low." 

The  old  adage  of  "an  ounce  of  prevention  is 
worth  a  pound  of  cure"  certainly  applies  to  the 
upkeep  of  automobiles,  and  if  owners  will  give 
their  batteries  inspection,  there  is  no  occasion  for 
it  ever  "going  dead."  Most  owners  are  inclined 
to  make  necessary  inspections,  provided  it  can  be 
easily  done,  and  the  car  manufacturers  have 
themselves  to  blame  in  many  cases  by  having 
the  part  that  needs  inspection  placed  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  reach. 

With  a  hydrometer  (which  can  be  had  at  a 
very  nominal  price)  the  owner  can  very  easily 
test  the  conditions  of  each  cell  of  his  storage 
battery  every  week  or  so.  This  instrument  merely 
gives,  on  an  easily-read  scale,  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  liquid  of  each  cell.  The  test  is  easily  made, 
and  from  the  reading  of  this  specific  gravity  the 
owner  may  tell  at  a  glance  whether  the  battery 
is  fully  charged  or  is  nearly  exhausted.  Thus,  if 
he  finds  the  battery  is  but  partially  charged,  he 
may  know  that  the  lights  and  starter  have  been 
used  without  sufficient  running  of  the  car  to  re- 
place the  current  consumed.  This  will  furnish  a 
hint  to  him  to  use  the  lights  and  starter  sparingly 
until  some  extended  daylight  trip  of  several  miles 
at  a  fair,  average  speed,  will  serve  to  restore  the 
electrical  reservoir  to  its  normal  level.  This  oc- 
casional testing  of  the  storage  battery,  together 
with  the  addition  of  the  required  amount  of  dis- 
tilled water  to  each  cell  every  week  or  two,  is  the 
only  work  required  of  the  owner  of  the  average 
car  to  keep  the  heart  of  his  starting  and  lighting 
system  in  proper  condition. 


CHAPTER    XV, 

Clutch  Adjustments. 

Detailed  Directions  for  Increasing  Tension,  and 
Replacing  Friction  Discs  on  the  Now  Almost 
Universal  Dry  Disc  Clutch. 

THERE  are  three  essential  clutch  parts:  the 
clutch  spring  to  engage  the  clutch,  the 
clutch  pedal  to  disengage  the  clutch,  and 
the  friction  surfaces  whose  duty  it  is  to  impart 
the  power  developed  by  the  motor  to  the  trans- 
mission. The  friction  units  are  the  base  of  the 
flywheel,  two  Raybestos  rings,  the  steel  friction 
disc  and  clutch  thrust  ring.  These  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  there  is  no  metal  to  metal  friction, 
but  a  very  positive  pickup  with  the  Raybestos 
acting  as  a  cushion. 

While  the  Raybestos  rings  are  subjected  to  a 
great  amount  of  usage,  and  abuse,  in  some  cases, 
they  wear  but  slightly.  When  they  do  wear,  ad- 
justment can  easily  be  made  by  loosening  the  top 
two  screws,  which  may  he  seen  by  removing  the 
clutch  cover  plate  and  turning  the  motor  over 
slowly  until  they  come  into  view.  Adjustment  is 
made  by  tapping  them  in  a  clockwise  direction, 
a  half  inch  or  so,  and  retightening  them.  When 
the  limit  of  adjustment  for  the  first  setting  is 
reached,  you  will  note  that  a  new  hole  tapped  for 
a  cap  screw  will  appear  at  the  left  end  of  the 
slot.  You  can  then  remove  the  cap  screws,  one 
at  a  time,  and  insert  them.  You  will  then  have 
another  complete  range  of  adjustment.' 

When  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  secure  ad- 
justment, new  Raybestos  rings  should  be  in- 
stalled and  the  cap  screws  replaced  in  the  holes 
they  were  in  before  changing  to  the  second  range 

(107) 


108 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


of  adjustment.  This  is  necessary  only  after  the 
car  has  been  driven  for  a  good  long  mileage. 
New  Raybestos  rings  may  be  installed  by  any 
owner  of  average  mechanical  ability  by  following 
the  complete  instruction  given  below : 

Remove  the  drive  and  pedal  shaft,  then  loosen 
cap  screws  and  drop  the  transmission,  which  will 


give  you  access  to  the  actual  mechanism.  Slip 
two  pieces  of  wood,  approximately  an  inch  thick, 
one  under  each  of  the  projecting  lugs,  which  fit 
into  the  shifting  yoke ;  then  loosen  the  cap  screws 
which  hold  the  clutch  cover  plate  in  place.  Be 
very  sure  to  see  that  the  blocks  are  placed  under 
these  lugs  before  you  loosen  the  cap  screws. 
You  can  now  remove  the  units  which  are  at- 


Clutch  Adjustments. 


109 


tached  to  the  clutch  cover  plate  and  lay  them  to 
one  side.  It  is  now  necessary  to  pull  out  th^ 
clutch  thrust  ring,  then  take  off  a  plate  at  the 
top  of  the  clutch  housing  and  drive  out  the  three 
dowel  pins  which  fit  in  the  notch  cut  in  the 
thrust  ring,  with  the  aid  of  a  drift  punch.  To  do 
this,  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  the  motor  o^jtr 
by  hand  in  order  that  yeu  may  have  access  to 
each  of  them.  When  these  are  removed,  you 
can  take  out  the  first  Raybestos  ring  and  the 
friction  disc ;  then  the  second  Raybestos  ring. 
You  are  now  ready  to  insert  the  first  new  ring, 


The  Clutch  Disassembled. 

then  the  friction  disc,  which  must  be  absolutely 
free  to  move  on  the  shaft,  then  the  remaining 
Raybestos  ring  and  dowel  pins.  Next  comes  the 
thrust  ring,  which  must  be  perfectly  free  to 
move  forward  and  backward.  If  it  does  not, 
you  will  probably  find  that  the  dowel  pins,  which 
are  cut  so  that  the  heads  will  allow  freedom  of 
motion,  are  not  properly  set.  This  means  that 
you  must  turn  them  until  this  position  is  reached. 
Next  take  up  the  clutch  cover  plate  and  ex- 
amine it  until  you  find  an  "X,"  which  is  an  in- 
dication that  the  holes  for  cap  screws  which  are 
spaced  closer  than  the  remainder.     Next,  locate 


110  Care  of  Automobiles. 

the  two  close  holes  in  the  flange  of  the  flywheel 
and  insert  the  cap  screws  which  hold  clutch 
cover  plate  in  place,  being  sure  that  the  clutch 
crank  thrust  rollers  are  so  turned  that 
the  flat  side  is  against  the  thrust  ring.  As  the 
wood  blocks  under  the  lugs  of  shifter  collar 
have  probably  dropped  out,  you  can  now  raise 
the  transmission  and  insert  clutch  shaft. 

There  may  be  some  little  difficulty  on  the  part 
of  an  inexperienced  man  in  getting  this  shaft  in 
proper  position,  but  after  a  few  tri^ils  it  will  be 
found  to  shift  readily  enough  into  place.  With 
the  aid  of  a  pinch  bar,  force  the  lug  of  the 
shifter  collar  into  the  proper  position  in  the 
clutch  and  throw  out  the  yoke.  Then,  with  one 
end  of  the  pinch  bar  on  the  flywheel,  and  ex- 
tending through  opening  in  clutch  housing,  pull 
up,  not  too  hard,  and  the  parts  will  slip  into 
proper  position,  which  will  permit  the  cap 
screws,  which  hold  the  transmission,  to  be  in- 
serted properly. 

In  case  the  cover  plate  has  been  removed  from 
the  adjusting  ring,  care  must  be  taken  to  replace 
it  in  the  proper  position.  Since  the  bell  crank 
levers  are  at  thirds  and  the  adjusting  screws  are 
at  halves,  a  half  turn  from  the  proper  position 
will  make  adjustment  of  the  clutch  impossible. 
In  the  cover  plate,  there  is  one  hole  that  the  cap 
screws  go  through  to  hold  it  on  the  flywheel, 
which  is  spaced  differently  from  the  rest.  Be- 
low this  hole  will  be  found  the  "X"  referred  to 
and  one  of  the  bell  crank  thrust  rollers  must  be 
placed  directly  opposite  this  "X."  With  this 
properly  placed  the  bell  crank  thrust  rollers  will 
be  in  contact  with  a  point  on  the  thrust  ring  at 
the  thinnest  point  of  the  ring  when  the  clutch 
cover  plate  is  placed  and  bolted  to  the  flywheel. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 
Functions  of  Automobile  Transmissions. 

Why  Some  Sort  of  Speed  Reducing  Mechanism 
Is  Needed  Between  Motor  and  Rear  Axle — 
Various  Types  of  Motor  Car  Transmissions 
Described  and  Explained. 

WITH  every  gasoline  engine  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  some  method  be  used  for 
changing  the  relation  between  the  speed 
and  power  of  the  car.  When  a  gasoline  engine 
is  loaded  above  a  certain  limit  it  slows  down,  and 
the  intervals  between  the  explosions  in  each  cylin- 
der become  so  far  apart  as  to  cause  the  engine  to 
labor  and  finally  stop  altogether,  unless  some 
means  is  used  to  increase  the  speed  of  the  engine 
by  decreasing  the  load  upon  it.  In  considering 
this  subject  it  must  be  remembered  that  when  a 
car  is  using  its  maximum  power,  it  may  be  divi- 
ded, either  into  considerable  pulling  power  with 
slow  speed,  or  high  speed  with  low  pulling  pow^r. 
Consequently,  when  a  car  is  going  at  high  speed 
and  a  considerable  grade  or  a  stretch  of  heavy 
road  is  encountered,  the  car  will  begin  to  slow 
down  until  the  speed  reaches  such  a  point  that 
l^e  engine  begins  to  knock  and  labor.  When  this 
point  is  reached,  it  becomes  necessary  to  change 
to  a  lower  gear,  which,  for  the  same  speed  of 
the  vehicle,  gives  a  considerable  larger  number 
of  revolutions  of  the  engine  with  a  consequently 
larger  pulling  power. 

This  pulling  power  is  termed  "torque,"  and  if 

gasoline  engines  could  be  so  designed  as  to  afford 

an  increasing  torque  with  decreasing  speed  all 

would  be  well  and  the  transmission  could  be  elim- 

(111) 


112 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


inated.  As  it  is,  taking  into  account  the  power 
of  the  motor  at  several  speeds,  nothing  of  this 
sort  can  be  considered.  At  very  low  speeds  the 
torque  becomes  of  greatest  importance. 

The  use  of  the  transmission  is  also  necessary  in 
starting  the  vehicle,  because,  until  it  reaches  a 
certain  momentum,  there  is  a  considerable  load 
on  the  engine,  so  that  a  lower  gear  which  allows 
a  higher  number  of  revolutions  of  the  engine  must 
be  used. 

It  is  generally  understood  that  to  reverse  mo- 
tion of  the  automobile  motor  is  to  labor  under 
disadvantages  in  numerous  ways.    Power  will  be 


lost  owing  to  the  inferior  valve  timing  relation, 
which  must  follow  if  the  camshaft  is  designed  to 
suit  reversing  conditions. 

Unless  certain  complications  are  introduced  in 
the  valve  action  and  since  in  any  case  it  would 
be  necessary  to  add  to  the  flexibility  of  the  motor 
by  the  use  of  a  transmission,  it  would  seem  un- 
necessary to  add  to  the  valve  motion  anything  in 
the  way  of  complicated  devices.  An  addition  to 
the  gear  set  is  less  complicated  and  the  end  is 
adequately   served. 


Automobile  Transmissions.       113 

The  most  popular  types  of  transmissions  are 
the  planetary  and  sliding  gear  types.  The  plan- 
etary with  few  exceptions,  is  only  used  on  the 
light  vehicles,  while  the  sliding  gear  type  is  ex- 
tensively used  on  all  sizes  of  vehicles. 

The  planetary  transmission  is  somewhat 
cheaper  to  manufacture  than  the  sliding  gear  type 
and  also  requires  much  less  skill  in  its  operation. 
There  are  two  types  of  planetary  gears,  those 
comprising  internal  and  external  gears  and  those 
comprising  only  spur  gears  in  their  make-up. 
The  latter  type  is  the  most  popular  and  will  be 
considered  in  this  article. 

Fig.  2  illustrates  this  type  of  transmission  and 
its  principle  of  operation  may  be  described  as 
follows : 

The  driving  shaft  "A"  carries  the  driving 
pinion  "B"  which  meshes  with  planetary  pinions 
"C."  The  latter  forms  part  of  the  sets  of  three 
pinions  which  are  formed  integral.  "D"  is  the  low 
speed  planetary  pinion  meshing  with  the  low 
speed  gear  "E,"  which  is  secured  to  the  driven 
shaft  "F."  By  applying  the  brake  band  "G"  to 
the  combined  pinion  carrier  and  drum  "H,"  the 
planetary  pinions  are  held  stationary  in  space  and 
act  like  a  back  gear.  Pinion  "B"  rotating  right- 
handed  turns  pinions  "C"  and  "D"  on  their  pin 
"M"  left-handedly,  and  pinion  "D"  turns  gear 
"E"  and  the  driven  shaft  "F"  right-handedly,  that 
is,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  driving  pinion 
"B." 

For  reverse  brake  band  *T"  is  applied  to  the 
brake  drum  "J"  which  has  the  reversing  pinion 
"K"  keyed  to  it,  being  thus  held  stationary.  When 
pinion  "B"  is  rotated  by  the  engine,  planetary 
pinion  "L"  is  forced  to  roll  on  "K"  in  a  right- 
handed  direction,  carrying  the  pinion  pin  "M" 
and  pinion  carrier  "H"  with  it,  thus  reversing 
the  direction  of  the  motion  of  driven  shaft  "F." 


114  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Direct  drive  is  obtained  by  engaging  the  high 
speed  clutch  "N,"  which  locks  the  reversing  gear 
"K"  to  the  driving  shaft  "A,"  and  since  two  equal 
gears  "B"  and  "K"  are  now  secured  to  the  shaft 
"A,"  the  planetary  pinions  are  locked  against 
axial  motion  and  the  whole  transmission  revolves 
as  a  unit. 

The  sliding  gear  type  of  transmission  consists 
of  two  parallel  shafts  mounted  on  suitable  bear- 
ings in  a  housing  called  the  transmission  case. 
The  first  of  these  shafts  is  known  as  the  primary 
or  main  driving  shaft.  This  shaft  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  forward  or  driving  end,  and  the 
rear  or  driven  end,  the  latter  being  provided  with 
a  bearing  at  its  forward  end  inside  the  former. 
The  second  of  these  shafts  is  known  as  the  sec- 
ondary or  countershaft.  The  driven  part  of  the 
main  shaft  is  either  squared  or  provided  with 
integral  keys  and  carries  the  sliding  gears,  whose 
common  hubs  have  squared  holes  or  keyways  to 
coincide  with  the  driven  shaft  to  make  a  sliding 
fit  upon  it.  The  driving  part  of  the  main  shaft  is 
provided  with  a  gear  which  meshes  with  a  gear 
on  the  countershaft  and  forms  a  drive  for  the 
latter.  This  countershaft  has  a  number  of  gears 
fixed  upon  it,  depending  upon  the  number  of 
speeds.  The  gears  on  both  shafts  are  so  spaced 
that  shifting  the  primary  set,  corresponding  gears 
on  the  two  shafts  can  be  brought  into  mesh  suc- 
cessively without  interference  from  the  other 
gears.  Shifting  of  the  sliding  set  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  hand  lever  located  conveniently  to 
the  operator  and  a  suitable  connecting  linkage. 
The  shifter  rod  carries  a  fork  which  is  attached 
to  the  sliding  gears  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit 
them  to  rotate  with  the  shaft. 

There  are  two  common  arrangements  of  shafts. 
In  some  cases  the  countershaft  is  located  below 


Automobile  Transmissions.       115 

the  main  shaft,  while  in  others  the  two  shafts 
are  located  in  a  horizontal  plane. 

When  the  shafts  are  placed  vertically  the  case 
is  generally  cast  in  one  piece  with  a  large  hand 
f  hole  cover  plate  for  inspection  purposes.  Where 
the  shafts  are  placed  in  a  horizontal  plane,  the 
case  may  either  be  cast  in  one  piece  or  in  halves, 
joined  through  the  centers  of  the  bearings. 

There  are  three  general  methods  of  mounting 
the  transmission. 

1.  Combining  it  with  the  motor  to  form  a 
unit  power  plant. 

2.  Individual  mounting  on  a  sub  frame  or 
cross  iTAembers. 

3.  Combining  them  in  a  unit  with  the  jack 
shaft  for  chain  drive  and  with  the  rear  axle  for 
shaft  drive. 

All  of  these  mountings  may  be  made  with  a 
more  or  less  degree  of  flexibility.  Three  point 
support  is  most  generally  resorted  to,  so  as  to 
relieve  the  unit  of  stresses  set  up  by  frame 
weavings. 

Fig.  R  depicts  a  three  speed  forward  and  re- 
verse selective  sliding  type  of  transmission.  The 
primary  shaft  is  squared  and  carries  the  two 
sliding  gears,  which  are  shifted  by  independent 
shifter  rods.  The  countershafts  are  driven 
through  constant  ni"esh  gears  "A"  and  "B."  In 
effecting  the  different  speeds,  gear  "C"  is  moved 
forward  and  meshed  with  gear  "D"  for  low  speed, 
while  for  reverse  it  is  moved  backward  and 
meshed  with  the  reverse  pinion  "E,"  which  re- 
mains in  constant  mesh  with  the  reverse  gear 
"H"  on  the  countershaft.  For  second  speed  the 
gear  "F"  is  meshed  with  the  gear  "G,"  while  for 
high  speed  gear  "I,"  which  is  integral  with  gear 
"F,"  is  moved  forward  and  meshed  with  the  in- 
ternal  gear   formed  integral   with  the   constant 


116 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


StcCcrire    Tr^c    rirAnSi^iS5iOf>. 


Fig.     R. 


Automobile  Transmissions.       117 

mesh  gear  "A."  This  forms  another  type  of  jaw- 
clutch,  while  the  type  depicted  above  may  also  be 
used  for  effecting  the  high  speed.  The  drive  and 
speed  reduction  for  first  and  second  speed  and 
reverse  is  through  the  constant  mesh  gear  and 
the  sliding  gears  which  are  meshed,  being  similar 
to  the  progressive  type. 

The  positive  clutch  type  of  transmission  is  re- 
lated to  the  selective  sliding  type,  since  it  oper- 
ates on  the  selective  principle.  However,  the 
gears  remain  constantly  in  mesh,  and  the  gears  on 
the  main  shaft  are  normally  free  to  turn  thereon, 
but  may  be  fixed  on  their  shafts  by  positive 
clutches.  These  clutches  may  either  be  of  the  jaw 
type  or  internal  and  external  gears  as  mentioned 
above.  The  gears  on  the  main  shaft  are  fixed 
against  axial  motion,  while  the  clutches  are  free 
to  slide  upon  keys  or  a  squared  portion  of  the 
shaft. 

In  this  type,  as  mentioned,  the  speed  changes 
are  obtained  by  meshing  the  clutches,  and  Fig.  5 
will  serve  as  an  illustration  for  this  type;  how- 
ever, the  high-speed  is  direct,  and  since  the  reduc- 
tion between  all  gears  is  different,  a  provision 
must  be  made  so  that  the  countershaft  can  be  dis- 
engaged when  high  speed  is  used. 

Transmission  gears  are  usually  lubricated  by  a 
non-fluid  oil.  For  easy  introduction  of  the  lubri- 
cant, a  hole  is  provided  in  the  cover  plate  or 
upper  half  of  the  case,  while  the  case  or  lower 
half  is  provided  with  a  drain  plug,  so  that  the 
stated  lubricant  may  be  washed  out  with  kerosene 
or  gasoline.  The  bearing  caps  are  invariably  pro- 
vided with  felt  washers,  while  all  other  parts 
are  provided  with  paper  gaskets  to  prevent  the 
lubricant  from  working  out  of  the  case. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 
Rear  Axle  Technology. 

Sidelights  on  the  Construction  of  the  Most  Im- 
portant Element  in  the  Running  Gear  which 
Every  Car  Owner  or  Expectant  Car  Owner 
Should  be  Familiar  With. 

FROM  the  standpoint  of  safety  the  rear  axle 
is  almost  as  important  a  part  of  the  motor 
car  as  the  front  axle.  From  the  standpoint 
of  the  many  things  it  has  to  do  it  is  even  more 
important. 

It  must  support  more  than  half  the  weight  of 
the  car  and  its  load.  If  it  should  fail  to  perform 
this  or  any  one  of  its  three  other  functions  there 
would,  of  course,  be  no  motor  car. 

It  is  the  part  which  gets  the  least  attention  and 
which  is  least  understood  by  the  average  owner. 
Yet  it  must  perform  its  functions  without  a  hitch 
every  time  the  car  is  taken  out  on  the  road. 

Owners  will  get  more  power  fifom  their  en- 
gines, more  comfort  and  satisfaction  from  their 
driving  and  will  be  more  secure  when  they  better 
understand  the  rear  axle  and  give  it  more  intelli- 
gent care. 

In  the  water  an  article  either  float's  or  sinks. 
And  technically  speaking,  a  rear  axle  is  either 
"floating"  or  "non-floating."  The  terms  "semi- 
floating,"  "three-quarter  floating"  and  "seven- 
eighths  floating"  are  really  misnomers  and  should 
not  be  used. 

In  the  floating  type  the  housing  sustains  the 
load  and  prevents  wobble  of  the  wheels  while  the 
axle  shafts  "float"  within  the  housing  and  merely 
transmit  the  turning  power  from  the  differential 
to  the  wheels. 

(118) 


Rear  Axle  Technology. 


119 


In  any  but  the  floating  type  the  axle  shafts, 
beside  turning  the  wheels,  play  some  part  in  pre- 
venting wobble  and  therefore  absorb  some  addi- 
tional strains. 

Tendency  to  wobble  is  caused  by  side  pressure 
on  the  wheels.  Engineers  call  this  side  pressure 
"skidding  force,"  because  the  familiar  skidding 
against  a  car  track  or  curb  pictures  most  clearly 


the  side  pressure  on  the  wheels  that  is  ever 
present  in  degree  and  is  due  to  uneven  pavements, 
to  ruts  and  to  turning  corners.  Rear  axle  design 
would  be  quite  simple  if  the  car  always  moved 
straight  ahead  over  perfectly  smooth  roadways. 
Mere  downward  pressure  of  car  and  load;  mere 
turning  of  wheels  would  require  no  great  en- 
gineering ability. 

Side  pressure  or  skidding  force  may  on  occa- 
sion be  five  to  ten  times  as  great  as  vertical  force. 


120  Care  of  Automobiles. 


■   < 


Rear  Axle  Technology.  121 


122 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


(And  axle  engineers  always  have  to  take  these 
occasions  into  consideration  in  their  designs.) 
Skidding  force  is  the  greatest  force  to  be  con- 
sidered in  axle  design. 

Now,  to  understand  the  essential  differences  in 
the  various  rear  axle  types,  let  us  consider  the 
combined  action  of  skidding  force  and  downward 
pressure.  For  simplicity  we  can  overlook  the 
turning  force  because  it  is  the  same  in  all  axles ; 


and  as  both  halves  of  the  axle  are  alike  we  can 
consider  the  force  in  one-half  only. 

Note  in  Figure  1  that  the  weight  of  car  and 
passengers  is  a  force  pressing  down  at  "H." 
There  is,  of  course,  a  reaction  of  equal  force 
pressing  up  at  the  ground  "T."  These  equal 
forces  are  called  static  load.  The  skidding  force 
acts  at  "T"  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow — or  in 
the  exact  opposite  direction. 

The  static  pressure  tends  to  spring  the  axle  as 


Rear  Axle  Technology.  123 

shown  in  Figure  2.  The  skidding  force  tends  to 
spring  the  axle  as  shown  in  Figure  3  or  Figure  4, 
depending  upon  the  direction  of  that  force.  Bear 
in  mind  that  the  axles  do  not  really  spring  out  of 
shape  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  draw- 
ings merely  indicate  tendencies  which  correct 
engineering  design  prevents  from  becoming  ac- 
tualities. Tendencies  in  engineering  parlance  are 
called  stresses. 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  both  static  force  and 
skidding  force  create  bending  tendencies  or 
stresses  in  the  axle.  It  is  the  combination  of  the 
forces  of  weight  and  skidding  when  acting  to- 
gether to  produce  the  same  tendency  as  in  Figure 
2  plus  Figure  4  that  determine  the  maximum 
stresses  engineers  must  figure  in  designing  a  safe 
rear  axle. 

Because  "H"  is  5  to  10  inches  from  the  center 
plane  of  the  spokes  there  is  some  bending  stress 
set  up  by  the  static  force.  And  as  there  is  a  con- 
siderably greater  distance  (half  the  diameter  of 
the  wheel,  i.  e.,  16  to  19  inches)  from  the  ground 
"T"  to  the  center  line  of  the  axle,  there  is  a  much 
greater  bending  stress  added  by  the  skidding 
force. 

In  the  "full  floating"  type  of  axle,  Figure  5, 
all  the  bending  stress  due  to  static  force  and  skid- 
ding force  is  carried  by  the  housing.  The  driv- 
ing shafts  turn  freely  within  the  housing  and 
bear  only  the  "torque"  or  stress  of  turning  the 
wheels.  The  shafts  are  said  to  float  within  the 
housing. 

In  the  "semi-floating"  type,  more  properly 
called  the  "fixed  hub"  type,  see  Figure  6,  the 
driving  shafts  turn  freely  within  the  housing.  At 
their  outer  ends  they  are  fixed  in  the  hubs  of  the 
wheels  and  carry  the  bending  stresses  as  well  as 
the  torque. 

In  the  "three-quarter  floating"  Figure  7  or  bet- 


124 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


Fig  S 

Full   Floating 


ter  the  "flanged  shaft"  type,  the  housing  extends 
into  the  hubs  of  the  wheels  as  in  the  "full  float- 
ing" type,  but  the  ends  of  the  driving  shafts  are 
connected  rigidly  by  flanges  with  the  wheels  so 
that  the  shafts  take  almost  all  the  bending  stresses 
and  all  the  torque.     In  the  flanged  shaft  axle. 


especially  when  only  one  bearing  is  used  under 
the  center  of  the  wheel,  the  stresses  are  quite  simi- 
lar to  those  in  the  fixed  hub  type.  We  will  there- 
fore confine  our  further  study  to  the  full  floating 
and  fixed  hub  types. 

It  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  Figure  5  that  the 


..^^fat 


brtequafcr   Float  ^^» 


in;  -jr  FUn^ed  Sbat'i 


preventives  of  bending  in  the  full  floating  are 
the  two  bearings  located  fairly  close  to  each  other. 
A  glance  at  Figure  6  will  show  that  the  preven- 
tives of  bending  in  the  fixed  hub  types  are  the  two 
bearings  located  nearly  half  the  car's  width  apart. 


Rear  Axle  Technology.  125 

Everyone  knows  that  when  the  supports  are  far 
apart  they  offer  a  much  greater  resistance  to  bend- 
ing stress. 

In  the  full  floating  axle  the  shafts  can  be  more 
easily  removed  for  repairs.  This  is  an  advantage 
on  rare  occasions.  Either  type  will  give  as  satis- 
factory service  as  the  other  if  each  is  properly 
proportioned  for  its  work.  But  it  is  necessary  to 
make  the  full  floating  somewhat  heavier  than  the 
fixed  hub  type  for  the  same  capacity. 

Time  was,  with  all  axles,  when  oil  from  the 
differential  used  to  work  along  the  live  axles, 
leak  out  through  the  hubs  and  get  into  the  brake- 
linings. 

Time  was,  when  it  stained  the  wheels,  ran 
down  the  spokes  and  injured  the  tires. 

Then  somebody  said,  "Why  not  run  a  sleeve 
into  the  central  opening  in  the  differential  hous- 
ing, just  to  make  pockets  that  will  retain  the  oil?" 
Why  not? 

And  that's  what  was  done.  The  oil  is  thrown 
to  one  side  by  centrifugal  force  when  the  car 
rounds  a  curve.  The  pocket  catches  the  oil  and 
holds  it — all  of  it — till  the  car  goes  straight  and 
gravity  returns  it  to  the  differential.  Oil  doesn't 
get  to  the  brake-lining ;  it  stays  where  it's  needed, 
in  the  housing. 

It  isn't  merely  the  size  or  rated  horse  power  of 
the  engine  that  counts.  It's  the  power  that  gets 
to  the  rear  wheels  which  moves  the  motor  car. 
And  all  this  effective  power  must  go  through  the 
more  or  less  intricate  mechanism  of  the  rear  axle. 
The  slightest  deviation  of  a  shaft  from  the  cor- 
rect line — the  slightest  inaccuracy  in  the  meshing 
of  the  gears — puts  additional  strain  on  the  engine ; 
increases  fuel  cost;  diminishes  satisfaction. 

The  engine  turns  the  propeller  shaft  rapidly  at 
right  angles  to  the  wheels.  In  the  rear  axle  this 
power   must   turn   a   corner   toward   each    rear 


126  Care  of  Automobiles. 

wheel;  it  must  be  divided  so  that  each  wheel 
gets  an  equal  share  no  matter  if  one  travels  faster 
that  the  other  when  rounding  a  curve;  and  the 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute  must  be  re- 
duced so  that  the  wheels  will  not  revolve  as 
rapidly  as  the  propeller  shaft. 

Making  the  power  of  the  engine  turn  the  Cor- 
ner and  reducing  the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  wheels 
are  both  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  bevel  pinion 
and  bevel  ring  gear,  or  of  a  worm  and  worm 
gear. 

Bevel  gearing  is  the  commonest  means  for 
turning  the  power  and  reducing  the  motion  in 
the  gasoline  passenger  car.  The  most  recent  ad- 
vance in  bevel  gear  construction  is  the  introduc- 


1-^.:^^^^^^.^^^ 

K 

=M 

Hl-Jll  "III 

Full  floating   axle  shaft 

^r 

Fixed  h!iS  axle  shaft 

tion  of  the  helical  bevel,  the  teeth  of  which  are 
curved  instead  of  straight. 

In  a  straight  tooth  bevel  gear  any  given  tooth 
goes  into  or  out  of  mesh  at  one  time  along  its 
entire  length.  In  the  helical  bevel,  however,  the 
meshing  starts  at  one  end  of  the  given  tooth  and 
gradually  moves  toward  the  other  end.  The  same 
is  equally  true  of  the  demeshing. 

On  account  of  this  action  at  least  two  helical 
teeth  are  in  partial  mesh  all  the  time.  It  is  this 
feature  of  gradually  entering  and  leaving  mesh 
tliat  insures  no  pound,  click  or  chatter  of  gears 
as  they  revolve  in  the  axle. 

And  the  principle  works  as  well  when  the  gear 
and  pinion  are  old  and  somewhat  worn  after 
thousands  of  miles  of  hard  service  as  when  they 


Rear  Axle  Technology.  127 


are  first  assembled.  Accurate  tests  show  that  the 
helical  bevel  is  fully  as  efficient  under  all  condi- 
tions as  the  straight  bevel. 

Inside  the  big  driving-gear  is  the  differential. 
The  object  of  the  differential  is  to  so  divide  the 
power  received  from  a  single  source  (the  driving- 
gear)  that  it  will  apply  at  all  times  with  equal 
force  to  the  two  rear  wheels  and  yet  allow  one 
wheel  to  rotate  faster  than  the  other  as  required 
when  turning  a  corner. 

From  the  differential  the  power  is  carried  to 
the  wheels  by  the  axle  shafts.     They  must  be 


The  inner  sleeve  keeps  the  oil  from  reaching  the  brake-lining. 


128  Care  of  Automobiles. 

strong — strong  enough  to  resist  the  greatest  pos- 
sible torsion  under  any  conditions  of  travel.  Yet 
they  should  be  as  light  as  is  consistent  with  per- 
fect safety.  Where  the  shaft  enters  the  differ- 
ential it  is  enlarged,  the  end  is  splined — and  steel 
is  left  back  of  the  spline — a  very  important  mat- 
ter. At  its  wheel  end  the  shaft  of  the  floating 
axle  is  enlarged  to  form  an  integral  disc  or  "driv- 
ing dog"  which  fits  into  the  driving  plate  of  the 
hub  and  turns  the  wheel. 

Because  the  shaft  of  the  fixed  hub  type  axle 
takes  both  torque  and  bending  stress  it  is  not  of 
uniform  diarrfeter  throughout  the  entire  length. 
It  is  made  thickest  where  stresses  are  greatest  and 
one  diameter  tapers  gradually  to  another  diameter 
to  avoid  shoulders  which  would  concentrate  the 
stress. 

The  flanged  portion  of  the  brake-drum  rotates 
between  two  brake-bands,  and  when  the  levers 
are  pulled  they  contract  the  external  band  or  ex- 
pand the  internal  one,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  surfaces  of  a  brake-drum  are  accurately 
finished  in  order  that  the  brake  bands  or  "shoes" 
may  take  hold  with  equal  force  at  every  point. 
Even  the  brake-lining  itself  is  inspected  and  tested 
and  must  not  vary  in  its  dimensions  more  than  a 
thousandth  of  an  inch. 

Torque  and  Driving  Stresses. — The  rotation 
of  the  pinion  at  the  axle-end  of  the  propeller- 
shaft  causes  the  driving-gear  with  which  it  meshes 
and  the  differential  axle-shafts  and  wheels  to 
revolve,  thereby  moving  the  car. 

At  Jthe  moment  of  starting,  the  inertia  of  the 
car  and  the  traction  of  the  wheels  on  the  ground 
tend  to  prevent  these  parts  from  rotating.  This 
produces  a  great  pressure  between  the  parts,  and 
that  pressure  comes  full  force  between  the  teeth 
of  the  driving  pinion  and  those  of  the  driving 
gear. 


Rear  Axle  Technology.  129 

In  starting  the  car  forward,  since  the  driving 
gear  is  momentarily  stationary,  die  driving-pinion 
tends  to  cHmb  up  on  the  gear  and  in  cUmbing  to 
carry  with  it  the  propeller-shaft  and  the  forward 
part  of  the  housing  through  which  it  projects. 

In  short,  the  entire  housing  tends  through  this 
pressure  to  rotate  in  a  direction  exactly  opposite 
to  that  in  which  the  wheels  are  turning. 

While  this  tendency  to  rotate  the  housing  is 


1 

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Timken  Toggle  Brake. 

perhaps  greatest  at  the  time  of  starting  the  car 
it  is  also  present  at  all  times  when  the  car  is  in 
motion,  particularly  when  the  wheels  meet  extra 
resistance  as  in  sand  or  mud  and  when  obstacles 
are  struck. 

It  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  housing  from  ro- 
tating and  to  absorb  the  stress  caused  by  the  ten- 
dency to  rotate,  which  stress  is  called  "torque." 

Rotation  of  the  wheels  against  the  ground 
forces  the  axle  forward.  This  "driving  force" 
must  be  transmitted  from  the  axle  to  the  chassis. 

It  is  becoming  more  and  more  the  general  prac- 


Oil 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


tice  to  take  both  the  torque  and  the  "drive" 
through  the  springs,  particularly  in  the  lighter 
cars.  With  properly  designed  springs  this  plan 
is  entirely  practicable,  simplifies  the  construction 
and  lowers  its  cost  somewhat.  It  gives  greater 
resiliency  and  consequently  is  easier  on  both  the 
rear  axle  and  the  chassis  as  a  whole. 

Some  car  makers  prefer  to  "drive"  by  means 
of  radius  rods  extending  from  the  rear  axle  to 


Timken  Cam  Brake, 


the  frame  of  the  car.  Several  makers  take  the 
"torque"  through  torque  rods  fastened  to  a  cross 
member  of  the  frame  near  the  transmission  and 
extending  to  the  rear-axle  housing. 

The  torque  rods  prevent  the  housing  from 
turning,  as  their  action  is  the  same  as  that  in- 
volved when  a  boy  holds  a  broom-handle  at  its 
ends  and  a  strong  man  takes  hold  at  its  center 
and  tries  to  turn  it.  The  increased  leverage 
due  to  the  boy's  hands  being  far  apart  enables 
him  to  overcome  the  greater  strength  of  the 
man. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
The  Differential. 

What  It  Is  and  What  It  Does — An  Automatic 
Gear  Which  Compensates  for  Erratic  Rear 
Wheel  Movement. 

THE  differential  comes  into  actual  service  in 
the  center  of  a  big  bevel  ring  gear  in  the 
rear  axle  of  a  motor  car.  Here,  as  we  have 
seen  in  our  opening  paragraph,  it  divides  the 
power  from  the  engine  and  transmits  it  to  the 
rear  wheels,  so  that  one  may  revolve  faster  than 
the  other  when  necessary.  To  illustrate  the  prin- 
ciple, the  following  brief  description  of  the  char- 
acter and  functions  of  a  differential  is  inserted 
for  the  benefit  of  those  readers  who  may  be  un- 
familiar with  this  important  part  of  the  motor 
car. 

The  differential  consists  of  a  set  of  bevel  gears 
located  at  the  center  of  the  rear  axle.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  divide  the  power  transmitted  from  the 
engine  equally  between  the  two  wheels,  and  to 
do  this  in  such  a  way  that  one  wheel  may  re- 
volve faster  than  the  other  when  necessary. 

In  a  wagon  the  rear  wheels  are  mounted  on  a 
dead  axle  and  revolve  independently  of  each 
other.  There  is,  therefore,  no  need  for  a  dif- 
ferential. In  a  power  driven  vehicle  the  rear 
wheels  must  still  revolve  independently  and  yet 
each  must  receive  one-half  of  ihe  power  trans- 
mitted through  the  rear  axle. 

To  illustrate  the  principle  in  as  simple  a  man- 
ner as  possible  w«  show  in  Fig,  1  an  experi- 
mental apparatus  in  which  A — A'  are  the  two 
live  axle  shafts  to  whose  outer  ends  are  fastened 
the  wheels  W— W. 

(131) 


Care  of  Automobiles. 

B 


Mounted  on  the  inner  ends  of  the  shafts  A — A' 
are  the  bevel  gears  G — G'.  Surrounding  these 
gears  and  concentric  with  them  is  a  belt-driven 
pully  B. 

It  will  be  clear  that  if  we  connect  the  tVo  gears 
solidly  by  the  rods  R — R',  which  in  turn  are 
securely  fastened  in  the  web  of  the  pulley  B, 
movement  of  pulley  B  will  cause  both  the  gears 
G — G'  to  revolve  at  the  same  speed  in  the  same 
direction ;  and,  since  the  wheels  W — W  are,  like 


r\ 


w 


vj 


r\ 


w 


\J 


The  Differential. 


133 


the  gears  G — G,'  secured  to  the  shafts  A — A',  the 
wheels  will  also  revolve  at  the  same  speed  in 
the  same  direction. 

Now,  to  allow  the  wheels  W — W,  and,  there- 
fore, the  gears  G — G',  to  revolve  at  different 
speeds,  we  remove  the  rods  R — R'  binding  the 
two  gears  together  and  substitute  for  these  rods 
the  pinions  shown  in  Fig,  2.  These  pinions  rotate 


freely  on  the  web  of  pulley  B  and  their  teeth  are 
in  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  the  bevel  gears  G — G', 

It  is  clear  that  when  the  pulley  B  revolves,  its 
motion  is  transmitted  through  the  pinions  to  the 
gears  G — G'  and  on  through  the  axles  A — A'  to 
the  wheels  W — W  just  as  it  was  transmitted  in 
the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  1,  but  with  this  im- 
portant difference — if  wheel  W  is  now  prevented 
from  revolving,  the  pinions  will  rotate  on  the  web 


134  Care  of  Automobiles. 

and  thus  allow  the  gear  G'  to  revolve,  carrying 
with  it  axle  A'  and  wheel  W. 

If  gear  G  revolves  slowly,  gear  G*  can  revolve 
rapidly,  or  vice  versa,  because  the  difference  in 
their  motion  is  compensated  for  by  the  rotations 
of  pinion  P — P'. 

It  will  also  be  clear  that  in  all  cases,  the  pres- 
sure transmitted  from  the  pulley  B  through  the 
pinions  P — P'  to  the  teeth  of  the  gear  G  and 
the  gear  G'  will  be  equal,  because  the  distances 
between  the  centers  of  the  pinions  and  the  teeth 
of  both  gears  are  always  equal. 

In  the  simplest  language  possible,  when  gear 
G  remains  stationary,  gear  G'  and  the  pinions 
roll  around  as  it  were,  on  gear  G,  the  teeth  of  the 
pinions  pressing  forward  on  the  teeth  of  gears 
G  and  G'  with  equal  pressure. 

Referring  now  to  Fig.  S,  we  see  the  differential 
as  actually  used  in  the  rear  axle.  In  place  of 
pulley  B  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  we  have  the  driving 
gear  D,  and  instead  of  two  pinions  there  are  now 
four,  but  the  action  is  the  same  as  that  described 
in  Fig.  2. 

The  driving  gear  D  receives  the  power  from  a 
beveled  gear  known  as  the  driving  pinion,  the 
latter  being  at  the  rear  end  of  a  "pinion  shaft" 
coupled  with  the  main  propeller  shaft  which 
transmits  the  power  from  the  engine. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 
Care  and  Adjustment  of  Brakes. 

Most  Important  Unit  in  Car  From  Safety  Stand- 
point, Yet  Brakes  Receive  Scant  Attention — 
What  to  Do  and  How  to  Do  It.       ' 

MOTOR  car  brakes  are  a  vitally  important 
detail  and,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  there 
is  no  other  unit  or  system  that  receives 
so  little  attention  from  the  motorist.  Various 
reasons  are  often  advanced  for  the  lack  of  atten- 
tion given  the  brakes;  however,  the  majority  do 
not  realize  the  importance  of  a  properly  adjusted 
brake  system.  When  a  motorist  takes  the  re- 
sponsibility of  operating  a  car,  he  places  himself 
and  those  who  may  be  with  him  in  a  very  un- 
pleasant and  sometimes  death-defying  position, 
unless  he  had  absolute  confidence  in  the  brakes 
of  his  vehicle,  which  can  only  be  gained  from 
frequent  inspection  and  adjustment.  It  is  wrong 
to  suppose  that  because  the  brakes  worked  prop- 
erly on  a  previous  application  that  the  same  de- 
gree of  service  will  go  on  indefinitely.  Neglected 
brakes  usually  fail  to  perform  their  work  at  the 
most  critical  times,  and  no  doubt  many  motorists 
recall  just  such  instances;  perhaps  the  result  was 
not  serious,  but  might  have  been  very  disastrous. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  see  a  car  on  the  streets  in 
the  congested  traffic  of  the  large  cities  collide 
with  another  vehicle,  due  to  inefficient  brakes. 
To  arrest  motion  is  equally,  if  not  more  im- 
portant than  to  create  motion,  so  it  would  seem 
that  while  considerable  attention  is  being  paid 
to  maintaining  good  acceleration,  the  same  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  provide  equally,  if  not 
better,  retarding  force.  It  is  true  that  the  brakes 
may  not  be  up  to  the  standard  of  other  parts, 

(W5) 


136 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


but  this  should  not  be  an  excuse  for  not  main- 
taining them  at  their  maximum  efficiency.  With 
some  the  brakes  are  a  pet  hobby,  and  occasionally 
one  finds  brakes  which  are  harsh,  due  to  im- 
proper adjustment.  In  this  case  the  brakes  cre- 
ate considerable  resistance  to  the  turning  move- 
ment of  the  wheels. 

It  is  not  expected  that  every  one  should  know 
the  amount  of  strain  in  actual  pounds  that  the 


Fig.  1. 


brake  mechanism  has  to  bear  when  one  applies 
the  brakes  for  stopping  the  car.  That  the 
amount  is  enormous  is  all  the  more  reason  why 
the  brakes  should  be  adjusted  properly  more  than 
once  or  twice  every  year. 

All  the  prominent  types  of  brakes  are  illus- 
trated herewith,  and  the  various  adjustments  will 
be  explained  in  terms  which  can  readily  be 
grasped  by  the  lay  mind.  The  illustrations  cover 
both  rear  wheel  and  transmission  brakes  and 
apply  to  both  hand  and  foot  operated  types. 

The  various  types  of  brakes  illustrated  are  not 


Adjustment  of  Brakes. 


137 


necessarily  used  in  the  above  combinations,  as 
there  is  no  reason  why  any  of  the  many  possible 
combinations  should  not  be  used.  The  arrange- 
ments here  were  made  simply  to  show  the  vari- 
ous forms  that  are  in  general  use.  There  are 
other  types,  but  the  principle  of  adjustment  is 
practically  the  same  and  the  following  advice 
may  be  applied. 
•    The  brakes  illustrated  in  Figures  1  to  9,  in- 


Fig.  2. 


elusive,  have  some  means  of  adjustment,  and  it 
will  be  noted  that  some  types  have  a  means  for 
complete  adjustment  of  the  brake  band  or  in- 
ternal brake  shoe,  while  there  are  also  types 
which  are  not  themselves  adjustable  and  in  which 
all  the  wear  must  be  taken  up  by  shortening  the 
brake  rods.  Equalizers  are  generally  being  de- 
pended upon  to  absorb  any  unevenness  of  wear. 
Figures  1,  2  and  3  illustrate  types  which  are 
provided  with  a  complete  adjustment  for  both 
internal  and  external  brakes;  that  is,  adjustment 


138  Care  of  Automobiles. 

is  provided  for  the  points  of  control  and  the  an- 
chors. Figures  4,  5  and  6  illustrate  types  in 
which  complete  adjustment  only  is  provided  for 
the  external  brakes  and  no  adjustment  is  pro- 
vided for  the  internal  brakes.  Figure  7  depicts 
a  set  of  brakes  in  which  the  conditions  are  just 
reversed,  adjustment  for  both  anchor  and  con- 
trol being  provided  for  the  internal  brakes  only. 
The  arrangement  shown  in  Figure  8  does  not 
provide  adjustment  for  either  internal  or  ex- 
ternal brake.  Figure  9  shows  a  transmission, 
brake  and  its  adjustment,  while  Figures  10  and 
11  illustrate  adjustments  sometimes  provided  for 
in  the  control  of  cam  operated  internal  brakes. 

In  making  thorough  adjustments  a  general  in- 
spection should  be  made  of  all  parts  of  the  entire 
brake  system  in  order  to  determine  that  all  parts 
are  in  serviceable  condition.  It  is  important  that 
the  brakes  be  evenly  adjusted  so  that  when  either 
set  is  applied  there  is  the  same  braking  effect 
on  both  wheels.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  it 
will  be  necessary  to  disconnect  the  rods  from  the 
foot  pedal  and  hand  lever  and  allow  the 
mechanism  to  release  as  far  as  possible.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  oil  or  grease  all  connections  at  this 
time,  since  it  will  be  possible  to  work  the  lubri- 
cant into  the  bearings  and  joints.  Then  jack  up 
the  rear  wheels  so  as  to  be  able  to  turn  them 
and  block  the  front  wheels  so  the  car  cannot 
move. 

In  order  to  give  a  more  comprehensive  idea 
of  the  method  of  adjusting  brakes,  the  writer 
will  describe  each  type  rather  than  a  general  de- 
scription of  all  types.  Referring  to  Figure  1, 
which  represents  one  type  of  Timken  brake  used 
on  several  models  of  the  Cadillac  cars  and  vari- 
ous others,  the  method  of  adjusting  the  external 
brake  is  as  follows: 

Turn   the   anchor   adjusting  screw  "S,"  until 


Adjustment  of  Brakes. 


139 


that  part  of  the  band  opposite  the  screw  is 
brought  as  close  as  possible  to  the  brake  drum 
without  touching  it.  Adjust  the  two  nuts,  "T," 
on  the  eye-bolt  until  the  lower  part  of  the  brake 
lining  just  clears  the  drum.  Next  adjust  nut 
"V"  on  the  upper  end  of  the  eye-bolt  to  bring 
low  "W"  to  the  position  shown  in  the  illustration 
when  the  brake  is  applied. 
When  the  brake  is  released,  if  the  upper  part 


Fig.  3. 


of  the  brake  lining  clears  the  drum  more  than 
1/32  of  an  inch,  the  clearance  should  be  reduced 
by  the  sci'ew  "X"  in  the  rocker  lever  "Z."  When 
the  adjustment  has  been  completed  be  sure  to 
lock  all  adjusting  nuts. 

With  the  outer  brake  on  one  wheel  completed, 
proceed  to  the  other  wheel,  usmg  the  same 
methods  there  to  adjust  that  brake.  When  this  is 
done,  connect  the  rod  to  the  pedal  again.  In 
most  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  lengthen  the 
rod„  which  can  be  done  with  the  adjustable  yoke 
end.     It  should  be  lengthened  just  enough   so 


140  Care  of  Automobiles. 

that  it  will  be  necessary  to  pull  with  one  hand  on 
the  rod  to  make  the  holes  match. 

With  the  rod  connected  one  person  should  ap- 
ply the  brake  while  another  turns  the  wheels,  to 
determine  whether  both  brakes  are  working 
evenly.  Depress  the  pedal  slightly  and  hold  in 
this  position  until  both  wheels  have  been  tested. 
Continue  this  operation  until  it  is  found  that 
the  brakes  are  in  even  adjustment  or  that  a 
change  is  needed. 

Such  a  change  may  be  made  by  lengthening 


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Fig.   4. 

the  rod  leading  to  the  brake,  which  is  the  tighter 
of  the  two.  This  will  compensate  for  the  uneven 
wear  of  the  brakes  which  existed  before  the  ad- 
justment was  made. 

To  adjust  an  internal  brake  is  not  near  so  easy 
as  the  external ;  but  as  this  is  so  little  used  it  does 
not  require  frequent  adjustment,  unless  condi- 
tions are  reversed  and  the  internal  is  used  for 
the  service  or  foot  brake.  The  brake  illustrated 
in  Figure  1  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  adjusted 
without  removing  the  wheel.  Remove  cover  "A" 
from  the  opening  in  the  brake  drum  by  unscrew- 


Adjustment  of  Brakes. 


141 


ing  the  lock  nut  "B"  and  turning  the  bolt  to  the 
left  about  one-quarter  turn  until  the  clamping 
bar  "D"  is  released.  Now  turn  the  wheel  until 
the  opening  gives  access  to  the  adjusting  screw 
"E,"  and  turn  this  screw  until  that  part  of  the  » 
brake  band  lining  in  line  with  said  screw  is 
brought  as/:lose  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  di;um 
as  possible  without  touching  it.  Then  turn  the 
wheel  until  it  gives  access  to  the  six  locking  nuts 
"N"  and  loosen  these  screws.  Turn  adjusting 
screws  "F"  and  "F,"  which  have  right-hand 
threads  on  one  side  and  left  hand  threads  on  the 


Fig.  5. 

other,  until  the  center  of  the  pin  "C"  stands 
about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  back  of  an 
imaginary  center  line  drawn  through  the  two 
pins  "H"  and  "H"  when  the  brake  is  applied. 
With  the  brake  released  adjust  screw  "I"  in  the 
lever  "J"  and  the  stop  screws  "K"-"K"  until 
the  lower  and  upper  parts  of  the  brake  lining 
clear  the  drum  1/32  of  an  inch.  After  making 
the  adjustments,  be  sure  to  lock  each  one  of  the 
locking  screws  "N."  Also  replace  and  fasten 
securely  the  cover  of  the  opening  in  the  drum. 

The  method  of  testing  and  adjusting  rods  is 
the  same  as  for  the  foot  brakes. 


142 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


In  some  constructions  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  rear  wheel,  and  the  proper  adjustment  can 
usually  be  obtained«by  using  as  a  guide  the  outer 
edge  of  the  circular  plate  that  forms  a  guard 
for  the  protection  of  the  brake.  However,  it  is 
much  better  to  use  a  little  more  time  by  replacing 
the  wheel  and  trying  the  brakes  for  both  clear- 
ance and  holding  power.  It  may  b^  necessary 
to  do  this  two  or  three  times. 


Fig.  6. 


The  brake  assembly  shown  in  Figure  2  has 
an  external  brake  similar  to  the  one  shown  in 
Figure  1,  and  may  be  adjusted  as  follows:  The 
jam  nuts  "D"  should  be  lowered  so  that  the  top 
of  the  brake  band  will  have  at  least  1/64  of  an 
inch  clearance,  and  the  wing  nut  "E"  is  adjusted 
until  the  proper  clearance  is  obtained  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  band.  The  adjusting  screw 
"F"  in  the  anchor  is  used  to  hold  the  band  1/64 
of  an  inch  away  from  the  drum  and  should  be 
so  adjusted.  The  internal  brake  is  of  a  type 
used  by  several  car  makers  and  also  on  some 


Adjustment  of  Brakes.  143 

Timken  rear  axles.  To  adjust  this  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  the  rear  wheel,  which. should  be  done 
by  following  the  instruction  given  in  the  instruc- 
tion book.  Loosen  binder  screws  "A'*  and  ad- 
just each  half  separately  by  cam  plates  "B," 
which  have  right-hand  threads,  a  few  turns,  and 
replace  binder  screws  "A."  The  adjusting 
screw  "C"  is  used  to  provide  the  proper  clear- 
ance at  the  anchor  of  the  brake.  Some  makers 
advise  using  a  dummy  or  skeleton  drum,  that  is, 
one  with  the  outer  flat  surface  cut  away,  to  give 
ready  access  to  the  interior.  Garage  men  who 
have  enough  of  such  work  to  warrant  it,  usu- 
ally have,  or  can  obtain  one,  as  it  is  a  great  time 
saver. 

Figure  3  illustrates  a  set  of  brakes  designed 
for  heavy  trucks,  representing  the  practice  of  the 
Clark  Equipment  Company,  builders  of  internal 
gear-drive  axles,  used  by  several  truck  builders. 
The  outer  brake  has  the  adjusting  screw  "A"  at 
the  anchor  for  adjusting  the  clearance  at  this 
point  of  the  drum.  The  upper  and  lower  por- 
tions of  the  band  at  the  opposite  ends  are  ad- 
justed by  the  screws  "B,"  which  are  retained  in 
stops  attached  to  the  brake  spider  and  securely 
locked  by  nuts.  These  should  be  loosened  and 
the  screws  "B"  adjusted  until  the  proper  clear- 
ance is  obtained.  The  two  ends  of  the  brake 
are  connected  by  clevis  rods  and  a  turn  buckle 
"C,"  which  permits  adjusting  the  position  of  the 
brake  lever  "D,"  and  this  in  some  cases  will 
eliminate  rod  adjustments. 

It  is  necesary  to  remove  the  wheel  in  order  to 
adjust  the  inner  brake,  which  does  not  have  an 
anchor  adjustment,  but  instead  is  provided  with 
four  supports  equally  spaced  around  its  inner 
circumference  and  provided  with  adjusting 
screws  "E,"  locked  by  nuts  "F."  These  four 
nuts  must  be  released  and  the  screws  adjusted 


144  Care  of  Automobiles. 

until  the  proper  clearance  is  provided  at  the  four 
points  around  the  inner  circumference  of  the 
drum.  The  internal  brake  is  also  provided  with 
hardened  steel  cam  plates,  "G,"  which  can  be 
replaced  when  worn. 

The  brakes  shown  in  Figure  4  are  used  on  the 
Buick  and  all  other  vehicles  equipped  with  Wes- 
ton-Mott  axles.  The  usual  adjustment  outlined 
above  is  used  on  the  toggle  lever  of  the  external 
brake,  while  a  spring  is  relied  on  to  provide 
proper  clearance  at  the  anchor.  As  previously 
mentioned,  this  adjustment  brings  the  ends  of  the 
lining  close  to  the  proper  point  of  clearance  on 
the  drum. 

The  internal  brakes  are  of  the  non-adjustable 
type  and  compensation  for  wear  can  only  be 
made  through  the  brake  operating  rod.  The 
method  of  procedure  will  be  explained  later. 

The  brake  used  on  the  Pierce-Arrow,  six- 
cylinder  cars  are  shown  in  Figure  5.  The  in- 
ternal brake  being  of  the  non-adjustable  type, 
and  these  are  used  for  the  foot  brake  instead  of 
the  outside,  as  in  the  conventional  arrangement. 
These  are  of  the  steel  shoe  type  with  bronze  lin- 
ings. Adjustment  is  possible  only  through  the 
brake  rods. 

The  external  brakes  are  used  for  emergency 
purposes  and  are  also  of  the  steel  shoe  type  with 
bronze  linings;  however,  an  adjustment  is  pro- 
vided. These  shoes  are  hinged  at  one  end,  which 
forms  the  anchor,  and  these  ends  may  be  drawn 
together  by  means  of  the  toggle  arrangement 
shown.  The  toggle  joint  of  the  brake  is  made 
adjustable,  while  the  two  ends  of  the  brake  may 
also  be  drawn  together  for  proper  clearance  by 
a  turn  buckle  and  set  screw. 

Another  t)^e  of  hinged  shoe  brake  lined  with 
friction  fabric  is  shown  in  Figure  6 ;  the  internal 
brake  being  non-adjustable,  while  the  external 


Adjustment  of  Brakes. 


145 


brake  is  provided  with  an  adjustment  on  the  tog- 
gle turn.  The  method  of  adjustment  has  been 
explained  above. 

Figure  7  depicts  another  Timken  construction 
used  on  some  vehicles.  The  external  brake  is 
of  the  semi-adjustable  type,  since  the  customary 
adjusting  arrangement  is  made  in  the  toggle  con- 
necting the  upper  and  lower  ends,  and  a  spring 
is  used  to  provide  proper  clearance  at  the  anchor. 
The  internal  brake  has  a  wedge  expanding  mech- 


anism acting  against  rollers  in  the  ends  of  the 
brake  band.  The  usual  set  screw  arrangement 
for  adjusting  the  clearance  at  the  anchor  is  pro- 
vided, while  the  ends  of  the  band  can  be  adjusted 
by  removing  the  brake  spring  and  the  band  ex- 
panded so  that  the  wedge  can  be  adjusted  in  or 
out  to  provide  proper  band  clearance  at  this 
point. 

As  previously  mentioned,  the  brakes  shown  in 
Figure  8  are  of  the  non-adjustable  type,  and  all 


146  Care  of  Automobiles. 

adjustment  for  wear  must  be  taken  up  in  the 
operating  rods.  Brakes  of  this  type  are  usually 
found  on  popular  priced  cars  of  light  weight, 
and  consequently  the  amount  of  work  performed 
by  the  brakes  is  comparatively  small.  In  this 
case  the  usual  procedure  of  jacking  up  the 
wheels  is  followed  and  the  pedal  and  hand  lever 
are  released  as  far  as  possible  and  a  trial  made 
by  applying  the  brakes  in  order  to  approximately 
ascertain  how  much  the  rods  must  be  shortened. 
In  some  cases  the  rod  leading  to  the  foot  pedal 
and  brake  lever  can  be  shortened  Sufficiently  to 
take  up  the  wear,  w^hile  in  others  it  may  be  neces- 


Fig.  8. 

sary  to  shorten  the  rods  leading  to  the  rear  axle. 
The  brake  rods  should  always  have  a  slight  ten- 
sion, as  mentioned  above.  In  some  cases  wing 
nuts  are  provided  either  at  the  foot  pedal,  hand 
lever  or  the  equalizers  which  can  be  drawn  up 
to  shorten  the  rods  and  the  labor  of  disconneA- 
ing  these  eliminated. 

The  usual  type  of  transmision  brake  is  shown 
in  Figure  9,  which  may  either  be  connected  with 
pedal  and  used  as  a  service  brake,  as  shown, 
or  connected  with  the  hand  lever  and  used  as  an 
emergency  brake.  A  single  adjustment  is  usu- 
ally provided,  which  serves  as  a  complete  take- 
up  for  wear  and  consists  of  a  knurled  screw, 
"A,"  connected  with  the  toggle  lever,  which  can 
be  drawn  up  to  provide  the  proper  clearance  at 


Adjustment  of  Brakes. 


147 


the  ends  of  the  band  similar  to  the  method  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  rear  wheel  brakes. 
This  adjustment,  Hke  the  ones  for  the  external 
brakes  in  Figures  1,  2  and  6,  is  locked  by  a  V- 
shaped  tongue  fitting  in  a  groove,  held  in  contact 
by  a  coiled  wire  spring. 


Fig.  9. 

In  some  cases  the  brake  levers  on  the  wheels 
are  provided  with  adjusting  sectors  which  pro- 
vide a  greater  range  of  adjustment  tliat  the  brake 
rods.  Two  such  sectors  are  shown  in  Figures 
10  and  11.  Figure  10  being  a  construction  used 
on  a  prominent  make  of  internal  gear  drive  axle 
for  motor  trucks,  and  consists  of  a  sector  keyed 
to  the  brakeshaft  and  provided  with  a  number 


148  Care  of  Automobiles. 

of  holes.  The  brake  lever  is  free  on  the  shaft 
and  connected  to  the  sector  by  a  bolt  and  nut. 
In  this  construction  the  adjustment  is  made  by 
removing  the  bolt  and  bringing  the  cam  to  proper 
position  for  band  clearance  and  then  attaching 
the  lever  by  inserting  the  bolt  through  the  holes 
which  communicate.  The  construction  shown  in 
Figure  11  is  used  on  the  Overland  and  several 
other  cars  and  differs  from  the  above  in  that  a 
slot  is  provided  in  the  sector  and  the  connection 
made  by  the  teeth  on  it  and  the  lever  and  held 
in  engagement  by  a  bolt. 

The  Care  of  Brakes. 

In  addition  to  adjustment,  brakes  require  at- 
tention on  the  part  of  the  operator.  Here  the 
question  of  lubrication  arises  again,  for,  no  mat- 
ter how  perfect  the  adjustment,  they  cannot  be 
evenly  applied  unless  all  joints  in  the  linkage  are 
free.  A  drop  of  oil  on  the  various  joints  of  rod 
and  lever  and  in  the  bearings  will  prevent  rust- 
ing and  squeaking. 

Most  all  brake  bands  are  lined  with  a  special 
lining,  and  occasionally  this  will  fail  to  function 
properly,  due  to  oil,  grease  and  soft  mud,  and  in 
this  condition  they  are  less  effective  than  when 
in  proper  condition,  hence  more  care  should  be 
exercised  when  driving  under  such  conditions. 
If  oil,  grease  or  mud  collects  on  the  friction  sur- 
faces, it  may  be  removed  with  gasoline,  after 
which  the  parts  should  be  wiped  dry.  Should 
such  a  condition  exist  on  tours  it  can  be  reme- 
died by  introducing  a  little  Fuller's  earth  care- 
fully between  the  band  and  the  drums.  This 
will  absorb  the  oil  or  grease  and  make  the  bands 
hold.  Brakes  should  never  be  permitted  to  drag 
or  bind,  as  this  causes  them  to  wear  rapidly  and 
also  places  an  additional  resistance  on  the  en- 


Adjustment  of  Brakes. 


149 


gine.    A  gripping  brake  can  be  eased  by  applying 
a  little  oil  and  graphite  mixed. 

When  brakes  fail  to  hold  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  that  they  need  adjustment.  Before 
jumping  at  the  conclusion  that  they  require  ad- 
justmerit  or  relining,  the  car  should  be  jacked  up 
and  the  frictional  surfaces  and  bearings  care- 
fully examined.  Failure  of  the  brakes  to  hold 
may  be  due  to  the  insufficient  travel  of  the  rods 
connecting  the  brakes  with  the  foot  pedal  or 
hand  lever.  In  jacking  up  the  car,  care  should 
always  be  taken  to  put  the  jack  under  a  substan- 


Fig.  10. 

tial  part  of  the  axle,  never  against  a  truss-rod. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  wheels  to  inspect 
the  brakes,  be  sure  to  properly  adjust  the  wheel 
bearings  when  replacing  the  wheel. 

Relining  Brakes. 
Due  to  long  service  the  brake  lining  will  lose 
its  usefulness,  and  it  then  becomes  necessary  to 
reline  the  bands  with  a  new  fabric,  or  metal  shoe 
if  they  are  metal  to  metal.  This  is  quite  a  diffi- 
cult problem  for  the  average  layman,  and  the 
majority  of  motorists  usually  place  this  work  in 
the  hands  of  a  repairman ;  however,  the  method 
of  applying  these  linings  will  no  doubt  interest 
our  readers,   for   some   enjoy  doing  their   own 


150  Care  of  Automobiles. 

work  which  they  feel  can  be  undertaken  with- 
out too  great  a  risk. 

The  first  step  is  to  obtain  the  correct  measure- 
ment of  the  lining  for  thickness,  width  and 
length.  The  width  of  the  lining  should  corre- 
spond with  the  width  of  the  internal  and  external 
bands,  while  the  length  can  be  obtained  with  a 
tapeline  around  the  external  brake  band,  allow- 
ing approximately  one-half  inch  overlap  at  the 
band  opening.  The  internal  brake  will  work  out 
about  an  inch  shorter.  Two  lengths  of  each  are 
required  for  each  set  of  brakes.  After  the  car 
has  been  jacked  up  from  the  ground  and  before 
removing  the  wheels,  it  is  by  far  the  safest  to 
place  the  axle  on  good,  strong  horses.  However, 
if  these  are  not  available,  block  the  front  wheels 
in  both  directions  with  wood  blocks  and  nail 
these  to  the  floor,  if  possible,  with  small  wood 
strips.  In  removing  the  rear  wheels  always  con- 
sult the  instruction  book  and  follow  instructions 
carefully.  When  the  wheels  have  been  removed, 
the  band  can  easily  be  disassembled  by  removing 
cotter  pins,  clevis  pins,  etc.,  adjusting  screws  and 
springs  at  both  ends.  In  doing  this,  be  careful  to 
observe  how  the  various  parts  are  assembled. 
A  good  plan  to  follow  is  to  use  small  boxes  for 
the  parts  of  each  brake  individually.  While  do- 
ing this  also  clean  all  parts  and  the  grease  which 
may  have  accumulated  on  the  axle  and  brake 
drum. 

The  most  tedious  part  of  the  entire  job  is  the 
removal  and  replacement  of  the  lining.  A  sim- 
ple method  to  remove  the  rivets  is  to  clamp  the 
band  in  a  bench  vise,  and  chipping  off  the  heads 
of  the  rivets,  they  can  then  be  driven  out  with  a 
small  punch.  If  the  old  lining  is  in  such  ccndi- 
tion  that  it  can  be  used  as  a  template,  the  length 
and  location  of  the  holes  can  be  obtained  from 
it.     However,  as  a  general  rule  this  is  not  the 


Adjustment  of  Brakes. 


151 


case  and  some  other  method  must  be  followed. 
Perhaps  the  safest  one  is  to  use  the  brake  drum 
on  the  wheel  as  a  fixture.  Place  the  band  around 
the  drum  and  insert  the  lining  between  these, 
allowing  the  end  of  the  lining  to  overlap  one  end 
of  the  band  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  Now 
clamp  the  ends  of  the  band  together  so  that  the 
effect  of  the  on  position  is  obtained.  If  a  clamp 
is  not  available,  wire  or  good  heavy  cord  can  «be 
used.     Be   careful   to    work  the   lining   snugly 


Fig.  n. 


around  the  drum  and  then  cut  it  off  one-quarter 
inch  larger  so  that  an  overlap  of  one-quarter  inch 
on  each  side  is  obtained.  In  this  position  the 
holes  can  be  marked  with  a  short  pointed  instru- 
ment, pencil  or  soapstone.  Release  the  band  and 
punch  the  holes  witK  a  belt  or  harness  punch. 
After  the  holes  have  been  punched  the  lining  can 
be  attached  to  the  band  with  a  few  small  bolts  at 
intervals  around  its  inner  circumference  and  the 
holes  countersunk  slightly  for  the  heads  of  the 
rivets.  This  must  be  done  so  that  the  heads  will 
set    slightly   below    the   surfaces   of   the  lining. 


152 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


The  countersinking  can  be  done  with  a  wood 
countersinking  tool  and  a  hand  brace.  Be  sure 
to  have  the  tool  sharp  so  that  it  will  not  tear  the 
lining. 

In  order  to  make  a  neat  job  of  riveting  it  is 
almost  necessary  to  have  a  vise,  unless  there 
are  two  people,  one  holding  the  work  while  the 
other  is  doing  the  riveting.     An  old  belt  can  be 


Fig.  12. 


used  to  rest  the  rivet  head  on  so  that  it  can  be 
seated  properly  in  the  lining  and  also  as  a  rest 
for  riveting.  The  rivet  should  be  drawn  snug 
with  a  rivet  set;  however,  if  this  is  not  available, 
a  piece  of  pipe  can  be  used.  Now  set  the  rivet 
head  with  three  or  four  blows  of  the  hammer; 
do  not  attempt  to  draw  the  rivet  too  much,  as 
it  will  tend  to  draw  through  the  fabric.  The 
rivet  should  not  extend  more  than  3/16  of  an 
inch  beyond  the  band  for  forming  the  head.    A 


Adjustment  of  Brakes.  153 

light,  sharp  blow  with  the  hammer  is  much  bet- 
ter than  a  heavy  one,  as  it  will  spend  its  force  at 
the  desired  point.  In  riveting,  be  sure  to  have 
the  lining  fit  the  band  snugly  at  all  points,  and 
do  not  remove  the  temporary  holding  bolts  until 
necessary.  The  inner  band  is  treated  in  the  same 
manner ;  however,  this  is  much  simpler,  as  the 
material  is  being  drawn  over  an  outside  surface 
instead  of  the  inside  of  the  band.  Perhaps  the 
only  difference  lies  in  marking  the  holes  for  m- 
ternal  lining.  This  may  be  done  by  first  allowing 
the  proper  overlap  at  the  end  and  marking  the 
first  two  holes;  punch  these  and  insert  the  tem- 
porary bolts.  Then  stretch  the  lining  around  the 
band  and  mark  the  holes.  If  shoes  are  used 
instead  of  a  complete  band,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  follow  this  method  for  each  shoe.  Figure  12 
illustrates  the  various  features  mentioned  above. 
In  reassembling  the  brakes,  be  careful  to  place 
every  part  in  its  proper  position,  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  a  complete  readjustment  as 
outlined  above.  In  replacing  the  wheels,  be  sure 
to  follow  the  instructions  given  in  the  instruction 
book  which  is  supplied  with  each  machine.  If 
you  have  misplaced  this,  a  copy  can  be  secured 
gratis  from  the  maker  of  your  car. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

Lubrication  Pointers  That  Have  Merit. 

Application  of  Oil  Should  not  Cease  When 
Motor  Has  Been  Properly  Lubricated — Entire 
Car  Should  Be  Gone  Over  Systematically — A 
Worth  While  System  to  Follow. 

IT  is  the  driver  who  runs  his  car  just  as  long 
as  it  will  hold  together  before  making  adjust- 
ments that  is  usually  the  one  most  dissatisfied 
with  it.  The  automobile  is  not  different  from 
any  other  piece  of  machinery,  except  that  it 
must  work  under  a  greater  disadvantage.  Ad- 
justments must  be  made  from  time  to  time  if  the 
machine  is  to  last  any  appreciable  period.  A 
loose  bearing  may  be  tightened  as  soon'  as  ob- 
served and  no  harm  done,  but  if  the  car  is  con- 
tinually driven  with  that  bearing  pounding  itself 
out,  a  new  bearing  is  the  only  remedy. 

Noise  is  a  positive  indication  of  wear  and  tear. 
Noise  is  the  outward  sign  that  parts  are  being 
worn  away  and  that  expenses  are  piling  up.  It  is 
a  matter  of  economy  to  make  all  adjustments 
promptly.  At  the  same  time  tinkering  with  any 
of  the  adjustments  should  not  be  tolerated.  Noises 
are  difficult  to  locate  at  times,  but  no  attempt  to. 
change  a  single  adjustment  should  be  made  until 
the  trouble  is  positively  located.  Tinkering  wears 
out  as  many  cars  as  does  the  normal  driving. 

The  proper  lubrication  of  the  entire  motor  car 
is,  perhaps,  the  best  insurance  of  freedom  from 
trouble.  Lubrication  charts  are  furnished  with 
the  car,  but  it  is  far  better  to  learn  the  amount 
and  frequency  of  lubrication  required  by  actual 
observation  than  it  is  to  rely  entirely  upon  such  a 
chart.     Weather   and  road   conditions   and   the 

(154) 


Lubrication  Pointers.  155 

method  of  driving  the  car  have  as  great  an  influ- 
ence as  the  actual  mileage  traveled.  Heavy  roads 
mean  more  power  with  greater  bearing  pressures, 
and  consequently  more  oil. 

It  is  a  good  policy  to  go  over  the  entire  car  at 
least  once  or  twice  during  the  year  and  clean  out 
all  oil  cups  and  supply  reservoirs.  After  an  oil 
has  been  used  for  a  considerable  length  of  time 
in  the  motor  it  becomes  black  and  thin  and  sedi- 
ment collects  in  the  base.  The  greater  percent- 
age of  the  lubricating  qualities  have  been  lost. 
Drain  the  crank  case  oil  reservoir,  and  flush  it 
out  with  kerosene.  See  that  the  oil  line  screens 
are  not  clogged  up  with  the  heavy  residue  that 
often  collects.  Fill  the  reservoir  with  a  fresh  sup- 
ply of  oil.  It  is  wonderful  how  an  entire  new 
supply  of  oil  refreshes  a  motor.  It  is  economy 
in  the  end  measured  in  dollars  and  cents.  The 
transmission  and  differential  gears  must  transmit 
all  of  the  power  from  the  motor.  The  grease  for 
these  parts  must  be  heavy  enough  to  cushion  the 
teeth,  but  light  enough  to  prevent  the  loss  of 
power  that  would  be  required  for  stirring  up  a 
heavy  viscous  grease. 

Lubrication  of  the  universal  joints  is  as  essen- 
tial as  is  that  of  the  motor.  The  universal  joint 
is  for  the  purpose  of  transmitting  power  around 
the  corner  of  the  drive  shaft  as  the  shaft  bends 
with  each  vibration.  The  universal  joint  parts 
must  be  fitted  closely  if  they  transmit  the  power 
smoothly.  Unless  a  film  of  oil  is  maintained  be- 
tween these  closely  fitting  parts  undue  friction, 
and  hence  wearing  of  the  parts  must  arise  with 
loss  of  power  at  the  rear  wheels,  or  lost  motion 
accompanied  by  creaks  and  groans.  Flush  out 
the  universal  joint  housings  and  use  a  new  sup- 
ply of  clean  grease. 

Flake  graphite  can  be  used  to  very  good  advan- 
tage in  all  greases,  even  in  the  motor,  providing 


156  Care  of  Automobiles. 

that  the  splash  system  of  lubrication  is  employed. 
Flake  graphite  is  in  itself  a  good  lubricant.  When 
used  mixed  with  oils  it  forms  a  perfect  coating  on 
the  bearing  surfaces  so  that  all  wear  comes  be- 
tween the  two  coats  of  graphite  instead  of  be- 
tween the  metallic  surfaces.  A  teaspoonful  of 
graphite  to  each  gallon  of  oil  is  ample. 

Neglect  is  one  of  the  prime  factors  in  the 
numerous  kicks  which  automobile  men  are  con- 
stantly confronted  with. 

If  an  automobile  owner  will  map  out  a  simple, 
regular  system  for  oiling  and  greasing  his  car 
his  satisfaction  will  reach  the  maximum  and  his 
troubles  the  minimum.  His  car  will  be  99  per 
cent  efficient  and  his  worries  decreased  to  a  con- 
siderable extent. 

The  front  spring  bolts  and  shackles  should  be 
well  greased  once  to  every  300  or  400  miles  of 
travel.  Neglect  of  these  parts  will  soon  produce 
noise.  The  same  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
rear  spring  joints.  The  rear  axle  gear-set  and 
transmission  gears  should  be  inspected  and  lu- 
bricated at  least  once  to  each  2,000  miles  of  travel. 
In  this  connection  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
proper  selection  of  materials. 

The  clutch  shifting  parts  and  brake  joints 
should  be  kept  well  oiled  at  all  times.  In  oiling 
the  magneto  or  other  ignition  devices  one  should 
bear  in  mind  the  functions  which  these  parts 
perform. 

Too  liberal  a  use"  of  oil  at  these  points  will 
often  cause  trouble  and  in  some  cases  put  the 
ignition  out  of  commission.  Two  or  three  drops 
of  oil  once  in  every  2,000  miles  will  be  sufficient. 
This  rule  may  also  be  applied  to  the  care  of  the 
starter. 

Motors  having  Water  pumps  should  be  given  at- 
tention at  this  point.  The  grease  cups  should  be 
kept  filled  with  hard  grease  and  given  a  turn 


Lubrication  Pointers.  157 

every  day  or  two  providing  the  car  is  in  con- 
stant use.  In  oiling  the  motor  itself  great  cafe 
should  be  exercised  in  using  oils  of  the  proper 
weight.  It  is  a  very  good  idea  to  keep  a  close 
tab  on  the  oil  gauge  and  the  oil  feeders.  Often- 
times the  feeders  become  clogged,  or  they  may 
run  too  freely.  This  is  a  waste  on  the  one  hand 
and  a  serious  neglect  on  the  other. 

All  moving  joints  exposed  to  the  dust  and  dirt 
should  receive  constant  care  as  to  oiling.  Dry 
spring  leaves  can  be  lubricated  by  separating  the 
leaves  and  allowing  a  mixture  of  graphite  and 
oil  to  run  between  them. 

Wheel  bearings  should  be  packed  with  hard  oil 
at , least  once  in  every  3,000  miles.  Much  care 
should  be  used  in  greasing  the  steering  gear  and 
all  connecting  parts.  A  fairly  soft  grease  should 
be  used  on  the  steering  knuckles,  as  any  binding 
here  will  make  steering  difficult. 


CHAPTER     XXI. 
Keeping  Up  Appearance  of  the  Car. 

Some  Sidelights  on  the  Proper  Treatment  to 
Keep  the  Finish,  U pholstery  and  Top  in  Pre- 
sentable Shape — What  Not  to  do  When  Wash- 
ing the  Car. 

WHENEVER  the  car  is  to  stand  for  some 
time,  it  is  well  to  jack  up  the  car  and 
allow  the  axle  to  rest  on  supports.  Re- 
moving the  weight  from  the  tires  does  not  de- 
crease the  air  pressure  to  any  degree  measurable 
by  the  ordinary  tire  pressure  ga  age.  The  damage 
is  done  to  the  tires  by  allowing  them  to  remain 
in  one  position  with  the  flat  spot  of  contact  until 
the  tire  takes  a  permanent  set. 

The  fabric  is  creased  and  the  rubber  is  stretched 
permanently,  so  that  a  weak  spot  is  developed. 
Keep  the  tire  rims  free  from  rust  by  sand-paper- 
ing and  painting, with  graphite. 

No  machine  can  remain  in  permanent  adjust- 
ment with  constant  running  when  it  has  a  coat- 
ing of  mud  and  sand  dried  and  baked  onto  it. 
Yet  many  automobile  owners  continue  to  drive 
their  cars  day  after  day  with  no  thought  of  re- 
moving the  dust  and  mud  that  accumulates  with 
each  drive.  The  tiny  particles  of  grit  work  into 
the  smallest  joints  about  the  moving  parts  and 
produce  their  cutting  effects  like  so  much  powd- 
ered emery.  The  result  is  slow  but  inevitable. 
Bearings  are  ground  out,  knocks  develop,  and  the 
car  is  ready  for  the  repair  man. 

Never  wash  the  car  in  the  bright  sunlight.  The 
water  dries  rapidly  and  streaks  are  left.  The 
man  who  does  not  have  water  available  under 
pressure  often  uses  such  a  condition  as  an  excuse 

(158) 


Keeping  Up  Appearances.         159 

for  allowing  the  car  to  become  encrusted  with 
mud.  Asa  matter  of  fact,  it  is  best  that  a  hose 
never  be  used  on  the  finish  of  a  car.  The  pail  and 
sponge  used  intelligently  produce  the  best  re- 
sults. 

The  cleaning  of  the  car  should  become  a  regu- 
lar and  systematic  duty.  Use  two  pails  and  two 
sponges.  One  pail  and  one  sponge  should  be 
preserved  for  the  final  rinsing  of  the  varnished 
parts.  Start  on  the  top  and  work  down.  Never 
use  gasoline  or  kerosene  in  cleaning  the  top. 

Most  top  materials  contain  rubber.  Castile 
soap  and  water  will  remove  the  grease  spots.  Fill 
the  sponge  full  of  water  and  dash  the  water  on 
the  body  gently,  so  that  the  dirt  particles  may  flow 
off  without  leaving  ^cratches.  Never  attempt  to 
rub  the  dirt  off.  The  sooner  the  car  is  washed 
after  being  on  the  road  the  easier  will  be  the 
process  of  cleaning  and  the  longer  will  be  the  life 
of  the  finish.  Should  the  car  be  new,  frequent 
applications  of  clear  water  will  tend  to  harden  the 
varnish  and  preserve  the  lustre.  The  varnish 
may  be  damaged,  however,  should  the  cold  water 
be  used  on  the  car  when  the  surrounding  tem- 
perature is  near  freezing. 

Keep  the  motor  clean  by  all  means.  Kerosene 
applied  with  a  brush  is  very  effective  in  re- 
moving accumulations  of  grease  and  dirt.  Use  a 
mixture  of  common  washing  soda  and  water  to 
wash  out  the  radiator  and  cylinder  jackets  at 
least  once  or  twice  during  the  year,  to  loosen  up 
all  scale  and  sediment.  Do  not  let  this  solution 
get  on  any  painted  surface.  Thoroughly  rinse  the 
cooling  system  with  clear  water  after  this  process. 
Keep  the  outside  of  the  radiator  clean  and  see 
that  the  air  passages  at  the  bottom  do  not  become 
clogged  with  mud. 

It  is  the  little  care  given  regularly  that  counts 
and  keeps   the  car  running  smoothly.     A    few 


160  Care  of  Automobiles. 

minutes  attention  each  day  will  save  many  hours 
later.  There  is  no  machine  built  that  stands  up 
under  the  continued  abuse  that  the  ordinary  auto- 
mobile receives. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

Hints  on  Maintenance  and  Repairing. 

Suggestions  for  Removing  and  Replacing  Anti- 
Friction  Bearings  of  the  Ball  Type — Tools  for 
Facilitating  the  Work  —  Bearing  Regrinding 
as  a  Means  to  Economy. 

MANY  anti- friction  bearings  are  damaged  in 
the  removal  or  during  application  when 
repairing  mechanism  in  which  they  are 
mounted,  but  this  results  more  from  ignorance 
of  their  nature  than  deliberate  intent  to  damage 
them.  A  common  cause  of  bearing  failure  is 
noted  when  they  are  driven  in  place  by  blows 
from  an  ordinary  machinist's  hammer  applied 
directly  to  the  bearing  face  or  through  the  me- 
dium of  a  steel  drift  or  blunt  cold  chisel.  Ball- 
bearings should  never  be  driven  in  place  or  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  steel  or  other  hard  metal 
tools,  because  the  race  members  may  be  perma- 
nently sprung  or  deformed  by  this  treatment. 

Whenever  the  construction  permits,  bearings 
should  be  removed  by  direct  application  of  pres- 
sure to  the  part  tliat  is  tightly  fitted.  When  a 
bearing  is  mounted  in  a  wheel  hub,  as  indicated 
at  Fig.  2,  a  simple  form  of  wheel  puller  can  be 
employed  to  advantage.  This  is  a  substantial 
casting  of  malleable  iron  or  bronze  made  approx- 
imately the  same  shape  as  the  hub  cap,  threaded 
inside  to  fit  the  hub  and  having  a  substantial  set 
screw  at  least  .75  inch  in  diameter  passing 
through  the  threaded  boss  at  the  centre.  The 
screw  should  be  long  enough  to  pull  the  wheel 
and  bearing  entirely  off  the  spindle  or  axle  tube. 
A  shouldered  plug  of  steel  with  a  depression 
drilled  therein  to  locate  the  screw  point  may  be 

(161) 


162 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


pushed  in  the  hollow  tube  to  centralize  the  screw 
pressure.  In  use,  the  wheel  puller  casting  or 
wheel  is  kept  from  turning  and,  as  the  screw 
advances,  it  pulls  off  the  wheel  and  the  bearing 
it  contains. 

.  A  modified  form  of  puller  having  two  arms 
and  a  cross-beam  that  can  be  used  when  a  bear- 
ing cone  must  be  removed  from  an  axle  or  spindle 
is  outlined  in  Fig.  1.  An  attachment  to  permit  it 
to  remove  a  bearing  of  the  unit  type,  such  as  a 
sing?e  or  double  row  annular,  without  exerting 
any  pressure  on  the  balls  or  outer  race  is  clearly 


Wheel  Pullar 

.Body  CooiiTQ 


iolit  Pressure  Collar     TO 
3ea.raV\c¥irost  bmer  fticeODly 

Fig.  1 — Modified  Form  of  Wheel 
Puller  Having  Two  Arras 
and  Cross  Beam  for  Dis- 
placing a  Bearing  Cone. 


Fig.  2— Hub  Wheel  Puller  for 
Removing  Wheel  and  Bearing 
from  Shaft  or  Axle  Tube. 


depicted  in  Fig.  3.  This  consists  of  a  'split  cast- 
ing adapted  to  be  clamped  loosely  around  the 
shaft  back  of  the  bearing  inner  race,  and  any 
pressure  exerted  to  remove  the  bearing  is  applied 
directly  against  the  member  which  is  a  force  fit 
on  the  shaft.  When  any  form  of  hub  or  bear- 
ing puller  fails  to  start  the  member  to  which  it 
is  applied  by  direct  pull,  its  action  may  be  accel- 
erated after  the  screw  has  been  tightened  suffi- 
ciently to  place  the  parts  under  a  certain  initial 
-tension  by  a  few  sharp,  well-directed  hammer 
blows  on  the  beam  or  main  body  of  the  device. 
In  all  cases  where  possible  the  pressure  applied 


Hints  on  Repairing. 


163 


to  remove  a  bearing  or  part  should  be  exerted 
directly  against  the  portion  that  is  a  tight  fit  on 
the  shaft  or  in  the  housing.  In  most  cases  it  is 
the  inner  member  of  the  bearing  that  is  a  force 
or  press  fit  on  the  shaft;  the  outer  race  member 
is  usually  a  push  fit  in  the  housing  and  may  be 
easily  removed.  If  it  is  necessary  to  force  the 
bearing  off  with  a  series  of  blows,  always  use  a 
brass  or  hard  babbitt  metal  bar  or  drift  between 
the  bearing  and  hammer,  or  even  a  piece  of  hard 
maple,  hemlock  or  oak.  Do  not  direct  all  the 
blows  at  any  one  point  on  the  bearing,  as  tliis 


Fig.  S — Construction  for  Remov- 
ing Single  or  Double-Row 
Annular  Bearings  Without  Ex- 
erting Stresses  on  the  Balls. 


Fig.  4  —  Illustrating  Proper 
Method  of  Driving  Bearings 
in  Place  with  Yoke  -Member 
of  Soft  Metal. 


tends  to  cramp  it  and  will  make  it  harder  to  drive 
off.  Distribute  them  evenly  around  the  entire  cir- 
cumference, always  having  successive  blows  at 
points  diametrically  opposite.  When  driving  bear- 
ings in  place  it  is  always  best  to  use  some  form 
of  soft  metal  yoke  member,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
or  tubular  section  piece  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  With 
either  the  yoke  or  the  other,  tubular  form,  the 
hamrijer  blows  are  distributed  evenly,  and  the 
bearing  is  driven  in  place  without  injury  to  either 
shaft  or  bearing  components.  When  a  double 
fork  member  is  used  one  end  can  be  made  to 
drive  against  the  inner  race  member  while  the 
other  can  be  spread  enough  to  fit  the  outer  race 
if  desired. 


164 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


Ball-bearings  do  not  require  the  continual  appli- 
cation of  lubricants  that  is  called  for  by  plain 
bushings,  and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  by  roller  bear- 
ings, but  this  does  not  mean  that  lubrication  can 
be  neglected  or  done  carelessly. 

The  important  point  to  observe  is  that  none 
but  pure  mineral  oils  or  grease  be  used,  as  any 
that  show  traces  of  acid  or  alkali,  or  that  may 
become  rancid  from  oxidization,  will  cause  etch- 
ing and  roughing  of  the  highly  finished  surfaces 
of  the  balls  and  races. 

It  has  been  the  cus- 
tom of  motorists  in 
the  years  past  to  dis- 
card ball  bearings 
when  they  have  be- 
came worn.  The 
supposition  prevailed 
that  worn-out  bear- 
ings and  bearing 
housings  were  merely 
"metal,"  and  it  is  only 
in  the  past  few  years 
that  the  motor  world  has  become  acquainted  with 
the  fact  that  worn  bearings  are  not  useless  and 
can  be  restored.  "When  it  is  understood  that  a  re- 
ground  bearing  is  absolutely  as  good  as  a  new  and 
that  the  rejuvenation  is  accomplished  at  one-fifth 
the  expense  of  what  new  ones  cost,  it  will  be  ap- 
preciated that  a  real  economy  has  been  wished 
upon  the  motor  world. 

Lubricants  best  adapted  range  from  light  ma- 
chinery oils  used  in  small  high-speed  bearings, 
such  as  fitted  in  magnetos,  lighting  generators  or 
starting  motors,  to  the  viscous  grease  utilized  in 
those  subjected  to  heavy  loads  and  revolving  at 
low  speeds,  as  wheel  or  differential  bearings. 
Whenever  the  bearing  can  be  immersed  in  a  bath 
of  oil  and  properly  protected   from  water  and 


Fig.  5  —  Showing  How  the 
Blows  of  Hammer  May  Be 
Distributed  Evenly  with 
Tubular  Tool. 


Hints  on  Repairing.  165 

grit  a  lighter  oil  can  be  used,  but  when  bearings 
are  housed  where  dirt  or  water  may  get  in,  then 
the  use  of  ample  quantities  of  viscous  lubricant, 
such  as  vaseline  or  other  mineral  grease  that  is 
free  from  acid,  prevents  the  foreign  matter  work- 
ing in  between  the  balls  and  races.  ^ 

Regrinding  a  bearing  entails  very  careful  and 
precise  work.  In  fact,  so  accurate  does  it  have 
to  be  that  the  outside  diameter  will  not  have  been 
changed  to  the  extent  of  one-thousandth  of  an 
inch. 

In  putting  a  bearing  in  "as  good  as  new"  con- 
dition, every  reliable  grinder  must  regrind  the 
raceways  so  that  the  proper  fitting  can  be  made 
and  the  bearing  allowed  to  perform  its  duties 
without  a  "hitch,"  which  often  is  the  case  when 
not  properly  ground.  New  balls  must  be  inserted 
and  new  retainers  used  where  necessary.  If  all 
these  things  are  properly  and  correctly  done,  the 
bearing  should  be  returned  to  the  owner  not  only 
as  good  as  new,  but  should  perform  all  the  duties, 
and  at  the  same  time  give  to  the  owner  of  the 
machinery,  or,  rather,  automobile,  as  much  serv- 
ice as  a  new  bearing. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 
Carbon,  its  Source  and  Elimination. 

P^or  Oil  the  Chief  Cause  of  Carbon  Deposit — 
How  It  Affects  the  Motor  Running  and  In- 
creases Wear — Various  Methods  of  Effecting 
Carbon  Removal. 

WHEN  a  sample  of  fresh  oil  is  entirely 
boiled  away,  it  leaves  a  black  layer  of 
carbon  on  the  interior  of  the  vessel  in 
which  the  boiling  takes  place.  This  deposit  is 
called  residual  carbon. 

Mineral  lubricating  oils  are  hydro-carbons; 
that  is,  they  consist  of  a  chemical  combination, 
in  various  quantities,  of  the  element  carbon  and 
the  element  hydrogen.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  a  "non-carbon" 
oil. 

All  oils  when  boiled  or  distilled  to  the  end  will 
leave  a  carbon  residue,  the  quantity  varying  from 
a  trace  with  highly  filtered  oils  to  a  veritable 
incrustation  with  inferior  oils.  No  oil  exists  from 
which  carbon  will  not  be  produced  when  it  is 
exposed  to  high  temperatures.  The  amount  of 
this  carbon  deposit  depends  largely  upon  the 
grade  of  the  crude  petroleum  from  which  the 
lubricating  oil  is  made,  and  the  care  and  thor- 
oughness exercised  in  the  process  of  refining. 

For  the  proper  lubrication  of  piston,  piston 
rings  and  cylinder  walls,  a  film  of  oil  must  at  all 
times  cover  their  contact  surfaces.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  piston,  driven  forward  by  the  ex- 
ploding gases,  exposes  the  protecting  film  of  oil 
on  the  cylinder  walls  directly  to  the  intense  heat 
of    the    explosion    (between    2000°    and    3000° 

(166) 


Carbon.  167 

Fahr.)  This  temperature  is  far  above  the  flash 
point  of  any  known  oil.  As  a  consequence,  part 
of  the  oil  film  is  flashed  off  and  escapes  with  the 
exhaust  gases.  On  the  up-stroke  of  the  piston 
a  small  portion  of  the  partly  burned  oil  film  is 
carried  into  the  combustion  chamber,  where  it 
spreads  over  the  walls  and  is  further  consumed 
by  the  heat  of  succeeding  explosions.  A  continu- 
ous feed  of  oil  to  the  cylinder  walls  renews  the 
depleted  protective  film.  From  a  consideration 
of  tliese  facts,  therefore,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
operating  condition  existing  in  the  explosion 
chamber  and  upon  the  cylinder  walls  of  an  in- 
ternal combustion  motor,  is  one  of  uninterrupted 
distillation  to  the  end,  and  the  carbon  deposit 
left  behind  is  residual  carbon. 

Carbonization. — Rapid  carbonization  of  a 
motor  invariably  results  from  the  use  of  a  poorly 
refined  oil  of  inferior  quality.  Hot  carbon  and 
the  sulphur  compounds  freed  by  the  combustion 
of  poor  oil  passing  between  valves  and  valve 
seats,  erode  and  pit  both,  necessitating  frequent 
regrinding.  The  carbonization  of  the  explosion 
chamber,  valves  and  top  of  piston  is  also  caused 
by  the  use  of  an  oil  of  incorrect  body,  too  light 
or  too  heavy,  too  high  an  oil  level  in  crankcase, 
or  by  the  presence  of  mechanical  defects  in  the 
motor. 

Figure  1  illustrates  one  of  the  most  serious  of 
mechanical  defects  contributing  to  the  immediate 
carbonization  of  any  motor  in  which  it  exists, 
namely,  piston  ring  leakage.  The  effect  of  this 
leakage  is  the  destruction  of  the  oil  seal  between 
piston  and  cylinder  with  attendant  loss  of  com- 
pression and  power.  A  surplus  of  oil  is  drawn 
into  the  cylinder  during  each  inlet  stroke,  and  the 
highly  heated  gases  escape  past  piston  rings  and 
piston  into  the  crankcase  during  each  expansion 
stroke.    This  breaks  or  "splits"  the  oil  there  and 


168 


Care  of  Automohiles. 


destroys  its  lubricating  properties  within  a  short 
time. 

Since  carbon  on  the  walls  of  the  combustion 
chamber  takes  up  an  appreciable  amount  of 
space  and  proportionately  decreases  its  volume, 
the  compression  pressure  increases  to  a  dangerous 
point,  where  premature  or  spontaneous  ignition 
occurs.  The  low  heat  conductivity  of  carbon, 
evidenced  by  incandescent  points   (Fig.  2),  only 


■(•/ 


FiL'.    1. 


-  m 


\  - 


aggravates  this  situation.  These  glowing  points 
ignite  the  explosive  charge  before  the  piston 
reaches  top  dead  center,  thus  giving  rise  to 
terrific  blows  upon  the  bearings,  and  to  unneces- 
sary wear.  All  noise  and  knocks  mean  loss  of 
power. 

A  troublesome  carbon  deposit  and  heavy  ex- 
haust smoke  usually  attend  the  use  of  too  light 
an  oil  in  the  majority  of  motors.  The  consump- 
tion of  a  light  oil  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
other  grades,  and  for  this  reason  a  larger  quan- 
tity is  fed.  Due  to  its  light  body,  such  an  oil  is 
copiously  sucked  past  piston  rings  into  the  ex- 


Carbon.  169 

plosion  chamber.  Compression  losses  result  be- 
cause of  the  poor  gas  seal  afforded  by  light  oil. 
If  an  attempt  is  then  made  to  decrease  carboniza- 
tion and  smoke  by  cutting  down  the  oil  feed, 
insufficient  lubrication  of  the  upper  portion  of 
cylinder  walls  and  destructive  scoring  end  the 
story.     (See  Fig.  3.) 

Buying  a  cheap  grade  of  oil  because  of  the  low 
price  is  not  true  economy,  but  will  eventually 
prove  to  be  a  very  expensive  practice.  The 
principal  lubricating  mediums  commonly  used  are 
fluid  oil  and  semi-fluid  oils  and  greases  derived 
from  both  mineral  and  animal  sources.  Graphite, 
one  of  the  most  important  lubricants  known,  is 
a  form  of  crystalline  carbon.  The  mediums  best 
adapted  differ  with  the  nature  of  the  work  the 
parts  are  to  perform.  An  oil  that  is  suitable  for 
one  portion  of  the  automobile  mechanism  may 
prove  actually  injurious  to  other  parts. 

By  adding  about  one  teaspoonful  of  ground 
flake  graphite  to  every  gallon  of  cylinder  oil,  it 
is  possible  to  carry  to  all  surfaces  a  material  that 
is  finer  than  the  most  minute  pores  of  the  metal 
and  which  will  gradually  cover  the  metal  with  a 
film  which  heat  cannot  easily  destroy.  The  bene- 
fits derived  from  the  use  of  graphite  in  oil  are 
accumulative,  for  which  continued  use  all  the 
bearings,  cylinder  walls  and  piston  rings  are  pro- 
tected by  a  lubricant  which  impregnates  the  metal. 
All  graphite  is  not  lubricating  graphite,  however, 
nor  is  all  lubricating  graphite  suitable  for  use  in 
cylinder  oil.  Care  must  be  exercised  and  only 
finely  ground  flake  graphite  of  the  best  quality 
should  be  used. 

Cylinder  oil  should  be  derived  from  a  crude 
petroleum  base,  because  oils  of  this  nature  are 
inorganic  and  are  not  liable  to  decompose  by 
exposure  to  the  air  or  by  heat  as  are  the  organic 


170 


Care  of  Jutomobiles. 


lubricants  derived  from  animal  fats  or  vegetable 
sources. 

The  best  cylinder  oils  are  obtained  in  three 
grades :  lignt,  which  has  a  consistency  slightly 
greater  than  machine  oil ;  medium,  which  is  some- 
what heavier  than  the  light,  aftd  is  an  inter- 
mediate grade  between  that  and  the  heavy-bodied 
oil  which  has  the  consistency  of  warm  molasses. 
The  medium  grade  is  best  suited  for  use  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  light  grade  in  winter. 


The  removal  from  time  to  time  of  carbon  de- 
posits which  accumulate  in  the  combustion  cham- 
ber and  on  the  tops  of  the  pistons  is  necessary 
on  all  gasoline  engines.  This  carbon  deposit  is 
always  a  source  of  difficulty  to  an  owner  or  driver 
and  its  presence  tells  so  adversely  upon  the  run- 
ning of  the  engine.  The  frequency  of  the  carbon 
removing  operation  depends  entirely  upon  the 
severity  of  the  service  and  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  the  lubricating  oil.  This  carbon  is  a  resi- 
due product  of  oils  and  its  presence  is  indicated 


^  Carbon.  171 

by  a  tendency  to  knock  when  climbing  a  hill, 
unless  the  spark  is  unduly  retarded,  and  also  by 
the  overheating  of  the  engine. 

This  carbon  is  a  deposit  of  heat  decomposition 
of  the  fuel  or  lubricant,  or  both,  under  pressure 
and  in  the  presence  of  too  little  air  for  combus- 
tion. Too  rich  a  mixture  almost  invariably  re- 
sults in  the  formation  of  carbon,  which  also  fol- 
lows upon  the  use  of  oils  that  do  not  stand  high 
enough  temperatures,  or  that  are  otherwise  of 
poor  quality.  It  may  also  be  caused  by  delaying 
the  opening  of  either  intake  or  exhaust  valve,  so 
that  not  enough  time  is  provided  for  the  opening 
of  the  exhaust. 

When  this  carbon  is  present  in  lumns,  it  will 
tend  to  become  red-hot  and  cause  pre-ignition. 
Small  particles  may  lodge  on  the  valve  seats,  pre- 
venting them  from  closing,  as  well  as  lodging  in 
the  piston  rings,  so  that  compression  and  conse- 
quently power  is  lost. 

There  are  several  ways  of  removing  carbon, 
which  depend  upon  the  facilities  at  hand.  It  may 
be  removed  with  denatured  alcohol,  scraping  or 
by  burning  it  out  with  oxygen. 

Denatured  alcohol  has  also  been  found  to  be 
a  good  decarbonizer.  It  should  be  introduced 
into  the  cylinders  while  hot  and  allowed  to  re- 
main there  over  night.  It  will  then  loosen  the 
scale  on  the  cylinder  walls  and  pass  out  through 
the  exhaust. 

In  using  decarbonizers  on  a  four  or  six  cylin- 
der motor,  two.  cylinders  must  be  treated  at  a 
time,  as  it  is  best  to  bring  the  pistons  in  the 
cylinders  into  which  the  decarbonizer  is  intro- 
duced into  the  topmost  position  with  all  valves 
closed. 

When  denatured  alcohol  is  used  an  ounce  or 
so  shall  be  used  for  each  cylinder  and  should 
be  squirted  up  against  the  top  of  the  inside  of 


172  Care  oj  Automobiles.  , 

the  cylinder  head  through  a  spark  plug  hole  with 
a  long  curved  spout  oil  can.  Also  put  a  little 
in  spark  plug  and  screw  it  in  place  again. 

The  necessity  for  scraping  may  be  minimized 
by  injecting  a  tablespoonful  or  two  of  kerosene 
into  the  cylinders  after  the  day's  run  while  the 
engine  is  still  hot.  Kerosene  when  used  in  this 
way  has  a  solvent  action,  which  may  be  utilized 
more  fully  by  turning  the  motor  over  a  few  revo- 
lutions, with  the  ignition  off,  so  that  the  kerosene 
will  work  over  the  entire  cylinder  surface. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  scrape  the  cylin- 
ders, intake  valve  and  exhaust  valve  port  plugs 
should  be  removed  and  the  engine  turned  over 
until  the  piston  reaches  its  top  center.  The  car- 
bon deposits  can  then  be  removed  by  carbon 
scrapers.  These  are  sharp  tools  of  different 
shapes,  bent  so  as  to  reach  the  piston  head  and 
top  of  the  cylinder.  All  carbon  removed  should 
be  scraped  toward  the  exhaust  valve,  and  when 
the  scraping  is  completed  the  motor  should  be 
turned  over  until  the  exhaust  valve  has  opened. 
Then  scrape  the  carbon  past  the  valve  into  the 
exhaust  passage,  whence  it  will  be  blown  out. 
Now  brush  the  surfaces  clean  and  be  sure  that  no 
carbon  remains  between  the  valve  and  its  seat. 
Finally,  wash  with  kerosene.  A  small  electric 
light  can  generally  be  placed  in  one  valve  port 
plug  hole  and  the  condition  of  the  surface  noted 
through  the  other  one. 

In  order  to  remove  carbon  from  ftie  walls  of 
the  piston  and  rings,  it  becomes  necessary  to  dis- 
mantle the  motor.  Either  operation  is  a  long 
and  tiresome  job  at  best,  but  the  improvement 
in  the  power  and  running  of  an  engine  afterward 
will  more  than  compensate  for  the  work  expended 
by  the  owner. 

Oxygen  can  also  be  used  for  removing  carbon 
by  burning  it  out ;  however,  this  method  is  mostly 


Carbon.  173 

used  by  large  repair  shops  and  may  harm  the 
engine  if  the  work  is  not  properly  understood. 
The  object  of  this  process  is  to  burn  the  carbon 
out  so  that  flames  will  not  be  directed  to  any 
particular  spot  any  length  of  time. 

A  good  plan  to  follow  when  scraping  carbon 
IS  to  grind  the  valves  after  it  has  been  removed, 
but  do  not  disturb  them  until  the  scraping  has 
been  completed. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 
Little  Things  That  Count  in  Car  Care. 

A.  Compilation  of  Useful  Information,  Short 
Cuts  and  Kinks  That  Will  Prove  Helpful  to 
the  Motorist — Simple  Ways  of  Accomplishing 
Complex  Operations. 

Cleaning  the  Whole  Car. 

THE  greatest  advantage  of  any  motor  vehicle, 
whether  it  be  intended  for  pleasure  or  com- 
mercial use,  is  its  appearance.  This  is  usu- 
ally given  considerable  study  when  the  car  is 
purchased ;  however,  the  value  of  appearance  is 
soon  lost  sight  of,  and  in  six  to  eight  months  the 
car  is  ready  for  another  painting  or  refinishing. 
Considerable  attention  is  generally  directed  to  the 
adjusting  of  the  mechanism,  but  very  little  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  finish.  Reference  is  not  only 
made  to  the  body,  but  also  to  the  motor,  radiator, 
the  chassis  in  general,  upholstering  and  top. 

The  clean  cut  motor  of  the  present  day  with 
all* working  parts  enclosed  requires  but  a  few  min- 
utes a  week  with  a  little  waste  and  kerosene  or 
gasoline.  Applying  the  waste,  saturated  with 
either  of  these  will  remove  all  oil,  grease  and  dirt. 
The  oil  and  grease  soon  become  covered  with 
dust  and  will  cake  and  harden. 

The  mud  pan  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed, 
so  that  all  oil  and  gasoline  are  removed,  as  this  is 
the  cause  of  a  considerable  number  of  fires,  when 
the  motor  backfires  through  the  carburetor,  and 
especially  when  it  is  mounted  low  so  that  the 
flame  shoots  under  the  motor.  The  inner  side  of 
the  hood  should  also  be  cleansed  regularly,  as  this 
usually  catches  oil  thrown  off  the  motor. 

The  radiator  air  spaces  are  often  clogged  with 

(174) 


Little  Things  That  Count.        175 

mud  from  the  road,  which  should  be  washed  off. 
If  it  is  permitted  to  remain  it  will  eventually 
reduce  the  efficiency  of  the  cooling  system,  by  re- 
tarding the  air  circulation  through  the  radiator. 
The  transmission,  inner  side  of  the  frame,  brack- 
ets, control  levers,  pedals,  etc.,  should  be  kept 
clean,  as  grit  and  sand  in  these  bearings  will 
cause  wear  to  appear  rapidly. 

Kerosene  is  frequently  used  for  cleaning  out  the 
disc,  clutch  and  lower  half  of  the  crank  case. 
This  should  be  saved,  as  it  lends  itself  well  to 
the  cleaning  of  all  metal  parts.  After  cleaning, 
all  metal  parts  should  be  rubbed  dry  and  all 
bright  parts  should  be  polished. 

Spare  rims  and  tires  should  be  kept  clean  and 
covered,  so  that  they  can  be  handled  quickly  and 
comfortably. 

The  fenders  add  considerable  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  car  and  should  always  be  kept  in 
proper  condition.  Mud  should  never  be  removed 
with  tools  after  it  has  become  hard.  If  it  is  too 
heavy  to  wash  off  a  wood  mallet  faced  with 
about  twenty-four  thicknesses  of  flannel  should 
be  used,  so  that  the  finish  will  not  be  marred  by 
blows  from  the  mallet. 

Mud  contains  substances  undergoing  chemical 
action  that  tends  to  corrode  and  dull  the  enamel 
or  varnish  when  allowed  to  remain  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time. 

Turning  now  to  the  body,  which,  perhaps,  gets 
some  attention,  it  may  be  well  to  enlighten  the 
lay  man  on  the  care  necessary  in  preserving  the 
luster.  Among  the  necessities  for  successfully 
accomplishing  this  are  two  sets  of  each,  pails, 
sponges,  chamois  and,  in  fact,  everything  con- 
nected with  the  washing  of  a  cat.  The  above 
articles  for  the  first  washing  should  be  kept  sepa- 
rate from  those  used  for  the  second  washing.  A 
further    suggestion   would   be   to   use    separate 


176  Care  of  Automobiles. 

sponges  and  chamois  for  the  chassis  and  wheels, 
as  more  or  less  grease  and  oil  collects  on  these 
parts,  which  should  not  reach  the  body.  Oil  gives 
the  body  a  cloudy  and  smeared  appearance,  while 
mud  which  hardens  leaves  a  spotted  surface, 
which  can  only  be  remedied  by  refinishing.  Never 
allow  any  one  to  rub  their  hands  on  any  of  the 
varnished  parts  of  the  car,  as  the  fine  particles  of 
dust  under  the  fingers  will  scratch  the  varnish  Uk 
emery. 

The  water  should  be  applied  to  the  body  with  a 
hose,  using  it  without  a  nozzle  or  a  soft  wool 
sponge.  When  the  mud  has  caked  very  hard  allow 
it  to  soak  a  little  by  playing  the  stream  on  it. 
An  easy  flow  of  water  through  the  hose  will 
soften  the  heavy  coating,  which  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary. Don't  squirt  the  water  from  a  nozzle  of  the 
hose  against  the  car,  but  rather  let  it  run  freely 
with  a  slight  pressure,  thus  washing  it  away  as 
freely  as  possible. 

Following  this  a  solution  of  soap  dissolved  in 
lukewarm  water  should  be  used  to  remove  the 
remaining  dirt  with  a  soft  sponge.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  the  sponge  clean,  removing  the 
sand  and  grit  frequently,  as  it  will  accumulate 
very  rapidly  and  scratch  the  surface.  A  good 
soap  is  of  considerable  assistance,  but  be  careful 
that  it  is  strictly  neutral,  as  a  soap  which  con- 
tains an  excess  of  alkali  or  oil  is  injurious  to 
the  varnish.  The  surface  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed,  leaving  no  trace  of  mud  or  grit.  Then 
rinse  off  the  soap  solution  with  a  soft  sponge  and 
a  good  quantity  of  fresh  water  before  it  has  had 
time  to  dry.  The  next  step  is  to  dry  the  surface 
with  a  chamois  skin,  rubbing  it  only  lightly.  It 
should  be  wiped  lightly  over  the  surface,  leaving 
a  thin  vapor  on  the  body,  which  drys  quickly, 
leaving  the  surface  clean  and  sparkling.  Rinse 
the  chamois  frequently  and  wring  dry. 


Little  Things  That  Count.        177 

In  washing  the  car  always  be  careful  not  to  let 
water  reach  the  batteries,  spark  coil,  or  any  unit 
of  ignition,  starting  and  lighting  units.  Particular 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  corners  and 
crevices,  and  water  which  may  lodge  there  should 
be  soaked  up  with  a  sponge  and  well  dried. 

Gasoline  or  turpentine  should  not  be  used  in 
cleaning  paint  work  on  the  car ;  while  bright  sun- 
light will  not  only  crack  the  varnish,  but  will 
deaden  the  gloss  of  the  best  finish.  In'  dusting 
varnished  surfaces  always  use  a  soft  woolen 
duster  rather  than  one  made  of  feathers. 

The  leather  upholstering  can  be  cleansed  by 
washing  with  lukewarm  water  and  castile  soap, 
then  rinsing  with  clear  water,  using  a  sponge  in 
both  operations.  The  surface  then  should  be 
wiped  dry  with  a  piece  of  soft  woolen  cloth  after 
which  a  good  leather  dressing  can  be  applied. 
Don't  attempt  to  clean  leather  trimmings  with 
gasoline,  stick  to  the  soap  and  water. 

Glass  fronts  and  windows  can  be  cleaned  by 
first  wetting  them  over  with  a  soft  piece  of  sponge 
moistened  slightly  with  denatured  alcohol  diluted 
to  about  one-third  its  original  strength  in  water 
and  dipped  slightly  into  pumice  stone  flour.  Allow 
this  mixture  to  dry,  then  wipe  off  with  dry  cloth 
and  polish  with  tissue  paper. 

Perhaps  the  most  neglected  part  of  a  motor  car 
is  the  top.  This  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
economy  of  the  car  and  should  receive  its  share 
of  attention. 

The  top  should  be  cleaned  by  first  putting  a 
little  castile  soap  in  a  bucket  of  tepid  water  until 
a  good  suds  is  obtained;  then  wet  a  soft  wool 
sponge  in  this  solution  and  wash  the  top,  using 
water  plentiful  enough  to  start  the  dirt.  Then  go 
over  the  top  with  clean,  soft  water  to  catch  up 
the  traces  of  alkali,  finishing  up  with  a  chamois 
skin  to  dry  off.    Now  apply  sparingly  any  selected 


178  Care  of  Automobiles. 

top  dressing  of  reliable  quality.     Never  fold  the 
fop  back  until  thoroughly  dry. 

Grinding  the  Valves. 

There  is  a  right  and  a  wrong  way  of  perform- 
ing so  simple  an  operation  as  grinding  valves, 
and  often  mortorists  make  a  muss  of  their  engine 
because  they  fail  in  performing  this  simple  opera- 
tion. Very  few  think  of  examining  the  valve 
stem  while  they  have  the  valves  out  of  the  cylin- 
der, as  the  chances  are  that  their  stems  are  coated 
with  dirt  and  carbonized  oil  and  possibly  the  stem 
has  been  binding  in  its  guide.  If  it  is  allowed  to 
go  back  in  this  condition,  one  of  two  things  will 
happen.  Either  the  stem  will  grind  out  the  valve 
guide  or  it  will  bind  up  and  cause  a  broken  timing 
gear.  While  the  valve  is  out  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly examined  and  all  grit  and  carbon  removed, 
while  it  should  also  be  tested  for  trueness  in  the 
stem,  as  it  may  have  been  burnt.  Often  one  will 
diligently  grind  a  badly  pitted  valve  for  an  hour 
or  so,  and  replace  it  without  verifying  its  clear- 
ance over  the  tappet.  Always  verify  this  clear- 
ance in  replacing  the  valve.  Also  be  sure  to  ex- 
amine the  valve  and  it's  stem  for  cracks  or  de- 
fect^, as  a  broken  valve  is  very  apt  to  cause  seri- 
ous damage. 

After  a  careful  examination  of  each  valve  we 
can  proceed  to  grind  in  the  valves.  First  plug 
the  opening  into  the  valve  with  some  waste  or 
wadding  so  that  no  grinding  compound  can  get 
into  the  cyHnder.  If  these  abrasives  do  get  into 
the  cylinder,  they  will  grind  the  piston,  cylinder, 
and  score  parts  which  are  supposed  to  have  had 
all  the  grinding  they  need  before  they  left  their 
birthplace.  Next  in  order  is  to  use  the  finest 
grinding  compound  that  it  is  possible  to  secure, 
known  as  carborundum.  Mix  this  with  a  little  oil 
to  form  a  paste  and  rub  it  on  the  valve  seat,  not 


Little  Things  That  Count.        179 

too  thickly.  A  brace  and 'screwdriver  bit  makes 
a  handy  tool;  however,  a  screwdriver  will  suffice 
if  the  former  is  not  at  hand. 

Now,  don't  spin  the  valve  around  as  though 
you  were  out  for  a  record  of  revolutions,  but 
rather  give  it  about  a  half-dozen  turns  under 
pressure  and  then  lift  it  up  and  turn  the  valve 
around,  to  avoid  ringing.  If  you  do  not  change 
the  position  of  the  valve  on  its  seat  it  will  make 
a  bright  appearance  all  around  on  the  valve,  but 
generally  leaves  the  seat  in  poor  condition. 

A  light  spring  if  .placed  under  the  valve  will 
raise  it  from  its  seat  as  soon  as  the  pressure  is  re- 
•  leased.  Another  good  method  is  to  use  a  screw- 
driver or  brace  and  an  oscillating  movement  to 
grind  the  valve;  that  is,  turn  first  in  one  direc- 
tion, say  for  four  or  five  revolutions,  then  lift 
the  valve  from  its  seat  and  repeat  the  operation 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Keep  this  up  imtil  the 
whole  contact  surface  of  the  valve  and  its  seat 
are  polished  silver-bright;  no  black  spots  should 
be  permitted,  as  these  points  will  perrnit  gas  to 
escape.  Both  valve  and  seat  should  show  a  bright 
circle  about  1/16-in.  wide  around  the  conical  sur- 
faces. It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  wide  seat, 
since  this  is  of  no  more  benefit  than  a  narrow 
one  which  is  ground  properly. 

Another  important  job  comes  at  the  finish,  as 
every  particle  of  grinding  compound  must  be  re- 
moved from  the  valve  chamber,  valve  parts  and 
valve  guide,  as  this  compound  will  easily  score 
the  cylinder  and  other  parts. 

Wash  it  out  thoroughly  with  gasoline  or  kero- 
sene and  reassemble  engine;  while  doing  this  it 
is  a  good  idea  to  check  over  the  valve  timing  of 
the  engine. 


180  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Vibration  And  Radiators. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  after  taking  * 
a  leaky  radiator  to  the  expert  for  repairs  that 
after  replacing  it  on  the  car  it  develops  another 
leak.  Generally  the  motorist  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  workman  was  at  fault.  This  is 
not  always  true,  for  it  is  not  the  repaired  leaks 
that  give  trouble,  but  the  new  ones  developed. 
Much  of  the  reported  radiator  troubles  are  due 
to  the  method  of  suspension. 

The  more  recent  types  of  cars  have  the  radia- 
tors so  mounted  that  frame  stresses  are  not  trans- 
mitted to  the  radiator,  and  provision  is  also  made 
for  eliminating  vibration.  On  old  cars  the  road 
shocks  are  transmitted  to  the  radiator,  which 
with  the  frame  stresses  impair  its  efficiency.  Be- 
fore replacing  an  old  radiator,  and  especially  if 
it  rests  on  a  cross  member  of  the  frame,  fit  a 
strip  of  rubber  or  similar  material  to  provide  a 
cushion  and  to  absorb  shocks. 

Cure  for  Rattling  Doors. 
Rattling  doors  are  very  annoying  and  this 
trouble  is  not  always  confined  to  the  low-priced 
motor  car.  A  simple  remedy  is  to  pad  out  the 
hinges  or  catches  with  thin  rubber  sheeting.  If 
the  doors  jam,  graphite  their  engaging  faces  or 
file  down  the  high  spots.  The  cause  of  the  doors 
seizing  is  generally  due  to  the  body  settling. 

Nut  Locking  Methods. 
A  lock  nut  or  washer  is  generally  employed  to 
maintain  the  tightness  of  a  nut  or  bolt  but  fre- 
quently there  is  not  room  for  these  members. 
Moistening  the  nut  and  screw  and  allowing  the 
parts  to  rust  will  render  the  nut  secure,  or  a 
coat  of  quick-drying  paint  will  often  serve  the 
same  purpose. 


Little  Things  That  Count.        181 

Cleaning  the  Muffler. 
A  dirty  or  clogged  muffler  will  materially  af- 
fect the  output  of  the  motor,  as  considerable 
back  pressure  will  be  developed.  A  simple 
method  of  cleaning  the  muffler  without  removing 
md  disassembling  it,  is  to  take  a  wooden  mallet 
and  tap  the  exterior  smartly.  This  will  loosen 
the  greater  part  of  the  deposits,  which  will  be 
blown  out  when  the  motor  is  started.  It  will  be 
surprising  the  amount  of  soot  that  can  be  re- 
moved from  a  muffler. 

Hints. 
Let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  kerosene  is  one  of 
the  best  agents  obtainable  for  cleaning  the  metal 
parts  of  the  car,  as  it  cuts  the  grease  even  better 
than  gasoline,  and  is  not  so  likely  to  ignite  if  ex- 
posed to  the  flame  of  a  blow  torch  or  a  carelessly- 
handled  match.  It  is  best  to  dry  the  kerosene  oflf 
the  metal  after  it  is  clean,  and  this  should  be  ac- 
complished by  a  careful  wiping  with  a  cloth  or 
bit  of  waste. 

By  cutting  out  a  square  in  the  floor  of  the  ton- 
neau .  and  attaching  a  proper  sized  box  under- 
neath, you  can  have  a  very  convenient  carrying 
receptacle  in  space  that  is  not  otherwise  taken 
up.  It  makes  a  good  place  to  put  a  carbon  foot- 
warmer  in  winter,  and  may  be  used  for  tools 
and  jack  at  other  times. 

Remember  that  new  tires  carried  on  the  car, 
if  not  protected  from  the  sunlight,  will  quickly 
oxidize,  crack  and  become  quite  worthless.  A 
new  tire  should  preferably  be  put  into  service 
a  little  while  now  and  then.  It  will  not  then 
deteriorate  near  so  quickly.  It  is  better,  how- 
ever, to  have  a  cover  for  extra  tires. 


182  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Gasoline  Pipe  Repairs. 
It  is  always  well  to  carry  a  section  of  rubber 
tubing  with  which  to  make  a  temporary  repair 
should  a  pipe  break  on  the  road.  If  the  gasoline 
pipe  breaks  off  short  at  the  union  a  gas-tight  re- 
pair can  be  made  by  filing  the  end  of  the  pipe 
to  a  cone  shape,  so  that  it  may  be  forced  into 
the  seating.  Next  slip  over  it  a  piece  of  rubber 
tubing,  and  when  the  vmion  nut  is  tightened  it 
expands^  the  rubber  inside  the  union  into  a  form 
of  washer,  which  will  make  a  perfectly  tight  tem- 
porary job.  An  additional  precaution  may  be 
taken  by  applying  a  touch  of  soap  around  the 
union  at  the  place  where  the  pipe  enters  and 
also  on  the  thread. 

Fly-Wheel  Knock. 
It  sometimes^happens  that  the  bolts  securing  the 
fly-wheel  to  the  flange  on  the  crank  shaft  work  a 
trifle  loose,  and,  as  a  result,  there  comes  an  irreg- 
ular knock,  hard  to  distinguish  from  a  loose  con- 
necting rod  big  end.  This  fly-wheel  knock  will  be 
more  noticeable  at  slow  motor  speeds,  or  when  the 
engine  is  being  accelerated  or  retarded.  This  is 
worth  remembering  when  an  obscure  knock  puz- 
zles you  to  diagnose. 

Careful  of  New  Car. 
It  requires  some  self-restraint  to  forego  the 
pleasure  of  operating  a  new  car  as  soon  as  re- 
ceived, but  this  should  not  be  done  unless  the 
machine  has  been  driven  from  a  responsible  agent 
who  guarantees  that  it  is  ready  for  the  road.  Even 
then  the  wise  motorist  takes  a  careful  look  over 
the  car,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  oiling 
system,  the  amount  of  water  in  the  radiator  and 
gasoline  in  the  tank  and  the  adjustment  of  the 
brakes.  Frequently  such  an  inspection  will  dis- 
close a  lack  of  oil,  water  or  a  slipping  brake  that 
might  result  seriously  on  the  road. 


Little  Things  That  Count.        183 

Care  of  Garage  Floors. 
Concrete  floors  in  garages  should  be  painted 
with  a  preparation  giving  them  a  smooth  surface 
which  is  easily  cleaned  and  saves  the  concrete 
from  wear  and  gritty  dust  from  rising.  The  floors 
should  be  pitched  slightly  'from  the  center  line 
down  to  the  side  walls,  both  ways,  with  gutters 
formed  in  the  concrete  along  the  walls  so  that 
washing  may  be  done,  if  necessary,  without  mov- 
ing the  cars. 

Storage  Battery  Trouble. 
Derangements  in  a  storage  battery  may  be 
caused  through  the  electrolyte  becoming  low,  com- 
pletely or  partially  destroyed  or  not  of  proper 
specific  gravity ;  the  plates  may  be  sulphated,  there 
may  be  sediment  in .  the  bottom  causing  short 
circuits  of  the  plates,  terminals  may  be  corroded, 
or  there  may  be  loose  wires  or  connectors.  It  is 
often  wise  to  look  at  the  wiring,  as  there  may  be 
defective  insulation,  wire  broken  inside  of  outer 
coverings,  oil  soaked  or  chafed  insulation  which 
always  cause  short  circuiting  wherever  the  wire 
comes  in  contact  with  metal. 

Replacing  Spark  Plug  Nut. 
To  render  easier  the  replacement  of  the  tiny 
nuts  that  hold  ignition  cables  to  spark  plugs,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  remove  the  top  three  or  four  threads 
with  a  file ;  if  this  is  done,  the  nuts  can  be  put  on, 
even  with  gloves,  merely  by  dropping  them  in  place 
and  giving  them  a  twirl.  Do  not  tighten  too 
tight  as  you  may  turn  the  wire  through  the 
porcelain  and  change  the  spark  gap. 

Loss  OF  Motor  Power — Its  Cause. 

When  there  is  loss  of  power  and  yet  the  engine 
is  firing  regularly  but  weak,  look  for  loss  of  com- 


184  Care  of  Automobiles. 

pression  at  either  valves  or  spark  plugs.  Of 
course,  this  may  also  be  due  to  the  trembler  on 
the  coil  vibrating  too  slowly,  and  this  can  be  ob- 
viated by  readjusting  and  trimming  the  platinum 
points.  Then,  agaiUj  it  may  be  due  to  too  rich  a 
mixture  or  flooding  of  the  carburetor.  Sometimes 
the  extra  air  valve  on  the  carburetor  refuses  to 
work,  and  again  it  may  be  caused  by  faulty  lubri- 
cation. Look  for  weak  springs  on  the  inlet  valves, 
the  lift  of  the  exhaust  may  be  reduced  or  the  si- 
lencer outlets  choaked  with  dirt  carbon  or  charred 
oil. 

Causes  of  Ignition  Trouble. 

Ignition  trouble  in  a  car  fitted  with  a  high  ten- 
sion magneto  may  be  due  to  dirty  oil,  metallic 
particles  or  carbon  in  the  distributor ;  the  brushes 
may  not  be  in  contact  or  the  breaker  points  out 
of  adjustment,  worn,  dirty  or  pitted.  There  may 
be  defective  winding,  the  field  magnets  weak,  the 
magneto  driving  gear  loose  or  the  magneto  out 
of  time. 

Bright  headlights  are  absolutely  necessary  for 
safe  driving  at  night,  but  when  two  cars  meet  in 
the  night  on  a  narrow  road,  with  headlights  daz- 
zling each  driver's  eyes,  great  care  should  be  used. 
There  is  danger  from  obstacles  on  the  sides  of 
the  roadway  and  danger  from  wrong  estimate  of 
distance  between  the  cars.  To  be  safe  slow  down 
and  dim  your  lights  before  meeting  the  ap- 
proaching car. 

The  filler  cap  should  be  replaced  and  care  taken 
that  the  small  hole  in  the  center  of  the  cap  is 
open  so  that  air  may  be  admitted  as  the  fuel  is 
used.  This  prevents  the  pressure  within  the  tank 
becoming  less  than  that  of  the  atmosphere. 


Little  Things  That  Count.        185 

Care  of  Radiator. 

The  radiator  should  be  filled  with  clean  water. 
As  with  the  fuel,  the  same  care  should  be  taken 
with  the  water,  to  see  that  it  is  free  from  any 
foreign  matter;  the  latter  may  clog  the  restricted 
passages  of  the  radiator  and  impair  its  efficiency. 

Because  an  electric  motor  or  dynamo  is  com- 
pletely enclosed,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for 
dust  and  dirt  to  work  in  from  the  outside,  it 
does  not  follow  that  the  interior  will  be  free  from 
dust.  On  the  contrary,  the  gradual  wear  of  the 
brushes  and  the  slower  wear  of  the  commutator 
produce  a  dust  that  is  more  or  less  abrasive  and 
also   is   a   good   conductor   of   electricity. 

Spark  plug  adjustment  will  clear  up  magneto 
troubles,  nine  times  out  of  ten.  If  the  points  on 
the  plugs  are  adjusted  right  the  gap  will  be  such 
that  the  current  can  readily  jump  the  gaps  and 
ignite  the  charge.  Often  the  car  will  run  all  right 
on  the  battery  and  yet  when  switched  onto  the 
magneto  there  is  trouble,  and  the  blame  is  laid 
onto  the  magneto,  when  a  mere  changing  of  the 
spark  plug  gap  is  all  that  is  needed.  Some  mag- 
neto manufacturers  provide  a  fine  gauge  for  spark 
plug  gaps,  while  others  advise  a  gap  varying  from 
one-fortieth  to  a  sixty-fourth  of  an  inch.  Many 
use  a  worn  thin  ten-cent  piece  as  a  gauge,  but  the 
best  way  is  to  experiment  around  these  figures 
until  the  proper  gap  has  been  effected,  and  then 
always  keep  the  gaps  at  this  figure.  It  is  im- 
portant, however,  to  make  sure  that  the  gap  on 
all  four  plugs  is  uniform,  otherwise  the  motor 
will  work  with  a  jerk. 

It  often  happens  that  the  enamel  on  the  hood 
becomes  blistered  from  the  exhaust  pipe.  An 
asbestos  shield  fitted  inside  the  hood  and  about 
an  inch  from  it,  will  prevent  this  most  unsightly 


186  Care  of  Automobiles. 

trouble.  Two  arms  should  be  secured  onto  the 
inside  of  the  hood  at  the  strategic  position  and 
to  these  a  sheet  of  asbestos  is  attached.  A  similar 
attachment  will  prevent  the  exhaust  pipe  char- 
ring the  woodwork  of  the  dash. 

After  filling  the  radiator  it  is  advisable  to  turn 
the  engine  over  several  times  to  allow  the  water 
to  circulate  through  the  cooling  system  and  any 
air  pockets  that  may  have  formed;  this  will  be 
indicated  by  a  lowering  of  the  water  level  in  the 
radiator;  in  which  case  more  water  s4iould  be 
added.  If  the  car  be  driven  in  winter,  a  good  non- 
freezing  solution  should  be  used. 

It  is  often  necessary  for  the  motor  car  owner 
who  does  his  own  repairing  to  hammer  a  polished 
surface,  which  would  be  absolutely  ruined  by  a 
steel  or  wooden  hammer.  Rubber  mallets  can  be 
bought  for  just  this  sort  of  work  at  almost  any 
supply  store,  or  at  a  pinch  a  pad  may  be  made 
from  several  thicknesses  of  old  rubber,  which  will 
prevent  marring  the  polished  surface. 

When  preparing  for  a  long  run  the  gaso- 
line, oil  and  water  showld  be  tested.  The  amount 
of  fuel  and  water  in  the  tanks  and  radia- 
tors may  be  determined  in  some  automobiles  by 
glass  gauge  tubes  fixed  to  the  fuel  and  water 
tanks  showing  the  level  of  the  liquids  at  a  glance. 
In  others  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  test  the  level  by 
inserting  a  stick  in  the  filling  hole  and  noting  the 
height  to  which  the  liquid  rises  on  it;  the  fuel 
level  may  be  tested  in  this  way  if  the  stick  be  with- 
drawn quickly  and  examined  before  evaporation 
takes  place. 

Gasoline  should  be  strained  to  guard  against  the 
carburetor  passages  becoming  clogged  by  foreign 
matter  that  may  be  contained  in  the  fuel.  A  cham- 
ois skin  or  wire  netting  having  a  very  fine  mesh 
may  be  used  as  a  filter. 


Little  Things  That  Count.        187 

Racing  the  Motor. 

While  there  is  reason  in  abundance  for  run- 
ning a  motor,  without  load,  at  reasonably  high 
speed  for  the  purpose  of  making  carburetor 
adjustments  and  the  like,  there  is  no  excuse 
for  "opening  her  up  wide"  and  letting  "her" 
turn  up  to  the  last  limit  of  speed.  Under  no 
conceivable  practical  conditions  could  the  motor 
run  in  such  a  way  in  service,  and  there  is  little 
sense  in  forcing  a  motor  to  do  things  that  are 
absolutely  useless  merely  for  the  purpose  of  mak 
ing  a  fearful  noise — which  is  the  most  obviour 
result.  Further,  excessive  racing  must  be  pro 
ductive  of  a  certain  amount  of  wear  and  tear  am 
no  small  unnecessary  strain  due  to  the  tremendous 
centrifugal  force  exerted  by  the  rotating  parts 
and  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  car  owner  to  avoid 
whatever  is  unnecessary  of  this  sort.  Tuning  a 
carburetor  so  that  it  will  carry  the  motor  at 
3,000  revolutions  per  >minute  when  it  cannot  pull 
the  car  when  running  over  1,700  revolutions  is 
nothing  short  of  foolishness,  though  it  often  goes 
to  the  extent  of  being  a  nuisance. 

Fan  Belt. 

During  the  hot  months  the  motor  requires  all 
the  cooling  available.  The  fan-belt  is  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  cooling  system,  and  attention  in 
the  shape  of  examining  same  to  see  that  it  is  not 
slipping  is  advisable.  If  the  belt  is  removed  and 
thoroughly  cleaned  with  gasoline,  then  allowed  to 
soak  a  few  hours  in  castor  oil,  this  will  refresh  its 
gripping  powers  and  will  make  the  oldest  belt  new. 

Leaky  Spark  Plugs. 

Leaky  plugs  can  cause  a  lot  of  trouble  that  ii 
very  difficult  to  trace.  They  will  make  a  motor 
miss  at  high  speed  or  on  heavy  pulls,  but  will  per- 


188  Care  of  Automobiles. 

mit  it  to  run  quite  properly,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  under  ordinary  conditions.  The  prin- 
cipal trouble  is  cracked  or  porous  porcelains, 
which  allow  the  high-tension  current  to  ground 
without  jumping  the  spark  gaps.  The  only  remedy 
is  to  fit  new  plugs  that  are  known  to  be  in  good 
condition,  and  to  be  careful  not  to  crack  the  porce- 
lain in  tightening  them  in  the  cylinders.  Never 
screw  a  cold  plug  tightly  into  a  hot  cylinder. 

Valves. 

An>i:hing  that  tends  to  push  a  valve  to  one  side, 
or  lift  it  by  applying  force  in  any  way  except 
centrally,  is  likely  to  cause  unequal  and  abnormal 
wear  of  both  stem  and  seating.  For  this  reason 
the  end  of  the  stem  and  the  top  of  the  lifter 
or  tappet  should  be  true  and  square  and  make 
perfectly  even  contact,  which  cannot  be  done  if 
either  is  unevenly  worn.  This  is  a  matter  that 
often  has  made  trouble  and  it  has  been  ascribed 
to  other  causes. 

Battery. 

The  positive  pole  of  batteries  are  usually 
marked  (  +  )•  ^^  "i^y  ^^so  be  determined  by  the 
chocolate  color  of  the  plate.  The  negative  pole  is 
often  recognized  by  mark  ( — ).  When  a  battery 
is  to  remain  idle  it  should  either  be  charged  and 
filled  with  water  or  charged  and  recharged  at  least 
once  a  month.     By  standing  it  will  deteriorate. 

Cleaning  Ball  Check  Valves  in  Oil  Pump. 
The  ball  check  valves  which  control  the  move- 
ment of  oil  through  the  pump  where  pressure  feed 
lubrication  is  adhered  to,  should  be  cleaned  oc- 
casionally to  insure  proper  working. 

Polishing  Valves, 
A  practice  that  is  said  by  some  repair  men  to 
be  beneficial  is  that  of  putti-ng  a  sort  of  final  polish 


Little  Things  That  Count.        189 

on  valves,  after  grinding,  with  graphite.  After 
the  grinding  has  been  completed  and  all  the  oi' 
and  grinding  compound  thoroughly  washed  oflf 
the  valve  seat  is  sprinkled  well  with  dry  graphite 
and  the  valve  is  worked  on  its  seat  just  as  in 
grinding.  The  result  is  said  to  be  that  the  sur- 
faces resist  wear  longer  and  retain  their  tightness 
better  than  without  the  graphite  finish. 

The  Care  of  Rims. 
The  care  of  rims  is  important.  They  should 
be  kept  free  of  rust  by  the  liberal  use  of  sand- 
paper, and  it  is  well  to  remove  the  tire  and  paint 
them  with  graphite  occasionally.  Ordinary  stove 
polish  is  an  excellent  rim  preserver.  If  the  rims 
are  bent  or  roughened,  rim-cutting  will  result. 
These  conditions  should  be  remedied  at  once. 
The  bolts  or  rivets  fastening  the  rim  to  felloe 
sometimes  work  loose  and  project  sufficiently  to 
injure  the  tube.  This  can  be  corrected  with  a 
file. 

Compression  Leakage. 
Compression  leakage  past  the  valves  of  a  motor 
may  be  due  to  a  great  variety  of  causes.  The 
valves  may  warp,  due  to  the  use  of  inferior  ma- 
terial in  their  manufacture,  or  to  faulty  cooling 
of  the  valve  chamber.  '  This  latter  may  be  brought 
about  suddenly  by  an  obstruction  in  the  jacket 
around  the  valve.  Excessive  grinding  of  the  valve 
will  reduce  the  clearances  between  the  stem  and 
cam,  so  that  the  member  cannot  close  completely. 
This  will  be  noticed  immediately  after  grinding, 
and  the  remedy  is  to  take  enough  off  the  stem  to 
obtain  the  proper  clearance.  Deposits  of  carbon 
on  the  valve  seat  will  also  hold  the  valve  off  it 
and  allow  the  compression  to  escape. 


190  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Leaky  Inner  Tube. 

There  is  nothing  much  more  mysterious  or  baf- 
fling than  a  tire  which  gradually  loses  its  air, 
though  it  is  positively  known  that  the  tube  does 
not  leak  and  that  the  valve  is  in  good  shape.  But 
there  is  always  a  reason  for  such  things,  and  one 
reason  for  loss  of  air  may  be  that  the  pin  in  the 
tire  valve  is  a  trifle  too  long,  so  that  when  the 
cap  is  screwed  on  it  makes  contact  with  the  pin 
and  pushes  the  valve  off  its  seat.  Filing  a  little 
oflF  the  end  of  the  pin  is  all  tb^t  is  necessary  to 
end  the  loss  of  air. 

Heating,  Ventilating,  a  fouRiNG  Car. 

A  touring  car  may  be  wartiied  in  winter  with 
very  little  trouble,  if  it  be  fitted  with  storm  cur- 
tains that  can  be  drawn  sufficiently  tight  to  ex- 
clude most  of  the  outside  air.  If  this  is  the  case, 
fit  a  large  ventilator  in  the  dash  to  allow  the  warm 
air  from  the  motor  and  radiator  to  enter.  A  pipe 
may  be  tapped  into  the  exhaust  manifold  and  led 
through  the  radiator  in  the  tonneau,  exhausting 
into  the  open  air. 

Lamp  Reflectors. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  silvering  of  lamp  reflec- 
tors from  tarnishing  when  not  in  use,  it  is  a  good 
scheme  to  give  the  surfaces  a  light  coating  of 
alcohol  in  which  a  little  collodion  has  been  dis- 
solved. This  will  form  an  excellent  protection, 
and  is  easily  washed  ofT  with  warm  water.  Of 
course,  any  polished  metal  surface  can  be  pro- 
tected in  the  same  way. 

Engine  Used  As  Br.\ke. 

When  using  the  engine  as  a  brake  in  descend- 
ing nills  with  the  ignition  cut  off,  open  the 
throttle.    This  will  materially  cool  and  clean  the 


Little  Things  That  Count.        191 

cylinders,  while  if  the  throttle  be  closed  a  certain 
amount  of  oil  will  be  sucked  into  the  cylinders 
from  the  crank  case. 

Ball  Bearings. 
Worn  or  broken  ball  bearings  should  be   re- 
placed with  an  entirely  new  set,  as  one  or  two 
new  balls  will  always  be  just  a  trifle  larger  than 
the  worn  ones  thus  taking  the  load. 

Hand  Motor  Primers. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  motor  has  to  be 
primed  on  the  road,  and  there  is  nothing  at  hand 
with  which  to  take  the  necessary  gasoline  from 
the  tank. 

A  good  way  is  to  take  a  tire  valve  dust  cap 
and  lower  it  into  the  tank  by  means  of  a  piece 
of  string.  One  capful  to  each  cylinder  should 
be  about  the  right  quantity  of  gasoline  to  use. 

Oil  On  th^  Motor. 
Oil  on  a  motor  is  a  most  prolific  dirt  catcher, 
and  dirt  has  no  place  about  the  automobile.  If 
it  hangs  in  masses  outside,  it  is  apt  to  get  inside 
on  the  slightest  opportunity,  as  in  fitting,  in  a  new 
spark  plug.  Besides,  it  does  not  look  well.  Oc- 
casionally a  driver  will  find  one  side  of  the  motor 
dripping  with  oil ;  mysteriously  appearing  from 
nowhere,  and  especially  plentiful  after  a  hard  run. 
The  oil  probably  has  been  splashed  up  through 
the  crank  case  breather.  If  the  case  has  not  been 
filled  too  full  of  oil,  a  brass  tube  carrying  three 
baffle  plates  should  be  fitted  inside  the  breather. 
This  will  stop  the  splashing  out. 

Carrying  Extra  Tubes  and  Casings. 

Extra  tubes  should  be  folded  and  wrapped  in 

cloth  or  put  in  a  cloth  bag.    If  left  in  the  original 

cartons  or  thrown   loosely  under  the  seat   they 

will  chafe  at  points  of  contact.     Never  put  them 


192  Care  of  Automobiles. 

in  the  tool  box  or  where  they  will  come  in  con- 
tact with  chains,  tools  or  grease. 

Spare  cases  should  be  provided  with  covers. 
The  wind  and  sun  dry  them  out  and  damp  get- 
ting inside  rots  the  fabric.  Interchange  your  tires 
occasionally,  for  rubber  deteriorates  faster  out  of 
use  than  in.  Remember  it  is  no  economy  to  carry 
retreaded  or  repaired  cases  as  extras.  Having 
been  through  a  second  heat  of  vulcanization  they 
are  liable  to  more  rapid  deterioration  than  new 
cases,  but  if  put  in  service  immediately,  you  will 
get  full  service  out  of  them  before  this  can  have 
much  effect. 

Carbon. 

Carbon  trouble  is  one  of  the  recurring  annoy- 
ances of  automobile  motors  which  never  has  been 
entirely  removed.  The  heat  of  combustion  is  so 
high  that  even  the  best  of  oils  leave  some  deposit. 
This  may  be  so  small  that  it  is  not  noticeable 
after  an  entire  season's  use,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  might  be  so  great  that  the  motor  refuses 
to  function  as  it  should.  When  going  over  the 
car  it  would  be  best  to  thoroughly  clean  the  cylin- 
ders of  all  traces  of  carbon. 

How  To  Hold  Steering  Wheel. 

To  properly  hold  the  steering  wheel,  let  the  right 
hand  firmly  grasp  the  rim  just  below  the  hori- 
zontal center  with  the  forearm  describing  a  right 
angle ;  the  left  hand  should  be  just  below  the 
fight  in  the  same  sectional  space.  The  method 
is  employed  by  racing  drivers. 

Bricks  and  Rocks. 

On  hills  drivers  of  heavy  vehicles  often  use  large 
stones,  bricks,  etc.,  for  holding  their  vehicle  when 
they  are  forced  to  halt  because  of  the  steep  in- 
cline.    When  they  start  oflF  they  invariably  leave 


Little  Things  That  Count.        193 

such  stones,  rocks,  etc.,  lay  on  the  highway.  Many 
springs  are  broken,  tires  either  blown  out  or  caus- 
ing the  beginning  of  a  blowout  from  driving  over 
such  bricks,  etc.  Watch  for  these  obstructions 
on  hills. 

How  TO  Make  a  Fire  Extinguisher. 
An  automatic  fire  extinguisher  may  be  made 
by  dissolving  three  pounds  of  salt  and  one-half 
pound  of  sal  ammoniac  in  one  gallon  of  water. 
Suspend  over  a  gasoline  tank  by  a  string  and  in 
a  bottle  that  will  break  readily.  Bottle  must  be 
high  enough  to  break  in  the  falling.  When  gaso- 
line catches  fire,  the  string  will  burn  and  the  bot- 
tle will  fall  and  break. 

Interchangeable  Tires. 
If  your  tires  habitually  give  low  mileage,  try 
an  oversize.  These  will  increase  the  cross-sec- 
tion of  your  air  cushion,  as  well  as  giving  a 
heavier  and  more  wear-resisting  tread,  and  if 
your  tires  have  been  overloaded,  will  overcome 
the  trouble.  Besides,  there  will  be  added  com- 
fort in  riding  and  less  wear  and  tear  on  the  en- 
gine, by  reason  of  decreased  shock  and  vibration. 

Piston  Ring. 
Should  a  piston  ring  be  worn  to  the  extent  that 
it  would  cause  loss  of  compression  you  can  tem- 
porarily restore  compression  and  its  expanding 
properties  by  placing  a  small  piece  of  clock  spring 
behind  the  defective  ring.  Place  the  clock  spring 
in  the  groove  and  be  cautious  that  it  is  of  the 
proper  size  to  fit  in  the  groove. 

Adjustment  for  a  New  Spark  Plug. 

Don't  fail  to  slightly  tighten  up  all  the  parts  of 

the  spark  plug  after  it  has  been  used  for  the  first 

time.     Most  manufacturers  ship  plugs  with  the 

Kracc  hnchinffs  sliehtlv  loose  to  allow  for  the  ex- 


194  Care  of  Automobiles. 

pansion  of  the  metal  parts  from  heat.  This  elim- 
inates the  possibility  of  cracking  the  porcelain 
when  the  plug  is  fiv^i  used. 

Magneto  Cover. 
It  is  important  that  magnetos  be  protected  with 
a  cover  against  dust  as  well  as  moisture.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  dust  is  always  entering  through  the 
radiator  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  fan  is 
blown  around  the  motor.  The  dust  clinging  to 
certain  parts  of  the  magneto  will  retain  moisture 
and  impair  the  ignition. 

Emergency  Repairs. 
An  invaluable  accessory  is  an  Inside  Protec- 
tion Patch  and  outside  Emergency  Band.  These 
can  be  separately  used,  but  should  always  be  used 
together  if  possible,  as  otherwise  the  original  in- 
jury will  spread  and  make  an  ultimate  repair 
either  impossible  or  more  costly. 

Tires  Heating. 

The  heating  of  the  tire  is  the  first  direct  result 
of  the  frictional  action  between  the  outer  shoe 
and  the  inner  tube.  This  can  to  a  certain  degree 
be  avoided  by  rubbing  French  chalk  over  the 
inner  tube  before  inserting  it. 

Rule  of  the  Road. 
Remember  the  rule  of  the  road  and  don't  drive 
on  the  wrong  sicie.  Should  an  accident  occur 
while  driving  on  the  wrong  side,  whosoever  was 
on  the  wrong  side  must  pay  the  damages.  It  is 
a  violation  of  the  law. 

Locating  Squeaks. 

Squeaks  are  sometimes  a  hazardous  undertak- 
ing to  locate.  A  body  resting  on  the  frame  un- 
evenly will  in  most  instances  cause  a  cracking 
sound.    By  placing  strips  of  leather  between  body 


Little  Things  That  Count.        195 

and  frame  (preferably  where  body  bolts  pass 
through  frame)  this  often  overcomes  this  noise. 
A  rubbing  or  rattling  noise  can  most  frequently 
be  attributed  to  the  edges  of  doors  rubbing  against 
their  frames.  This  is  often  the  result  of  the  body 
sagging  in  the  center  and  can  be  remedied  by 
placing  a  shim  of  the  required  thickness  under 
body  bolt  on  the  side  where  the  door  rattles.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  a  door  will  bind  or  stick; 
this  is  due  from  practically  the  same  cause.  In 
the  latter  instance,  however,  the  body  may  be 
shimed  too  high  on  either  side,  and  by  removing 
a  certain  amount  of  shiming  it  may  overcome  the 
trouble. 

Another  annoying  noise  which  often  occurs  is 
a  sharp,  dry  squeak  coming  from  spring  shackle 
bolts,  brake  rod,  cleves,  pins,  steering  cross  tube 
connections,  etc.  Many  owners  and  drivers  be- 
come discouraged  in  their  attempts  to  obliterate 
such  squeaks.  Examine  oilers  or  grease  cups 
attached  to  spring  bolts,  etc.,  to  determine  that 
same  have  free  passage.  Probably  some  of  the 
above  connections  are  too  tight  or  paint  may  be 
keeping  the  lubricant  from  reaching  the  vital 
points.  Squirt  a  superfluous  amount  of  oil  around 
all  moving  parts.  See  that  brakes  are  released 
completely  and  free  from  dragging. 

Hard  Rubber  Repairs,  Etc. 

The  hard  rubber  in  storage  battery  jars  is  of 
excellent  quality,  and  pieces  from  broken  jars 
therefore  are  frequently  of  use  in  making  repairs 
or  doing  work  in  which  good,  strong  insulating 
material  is  needed.' 

Dry  Cell  Bolts. 

It  is  a  common  scene  to  notice  many  of  the 
little  brass  bolts  used  on  dry  cells  lying  around 
garages,  etc.    They  should  be  saved,  as  they  often 


196  Care  of  Automobiles. 

make  useful  fastenings  for  many  places  where 
rivets  and  screws  are  used. 

Encourage  your  car's  ability  by  careful  hand- 
ling. 

A  thin  coat  of  ordinary  grease  applied  between 
the  body  and  frame  will  remedy  certain  body 
squeaks. ' 

An  examination  of  all  steering  connections  oc- 
casionally is  time  well  spent. 

Expenses  can  be  greatly  reduced  by  regular  oil- 
ing and  examination  of  parts. 

Marking  Front  Gears. 

While  most  all  factories  adopt  a  standard  scale 
of  marking  the  front  gears  (consisting  chiefly  of 
crank  shaft  and  cam  shaft  gears),  it  occurs  some- 
times where  it  is  necessary  to  move  a  gear  ahead 
or  behind  one  or  more  teeth  to  attain  the  proper 
timing.  Should  you  remove  any  such  gears  and 
do  not  understand  thoroughly  the  method  of  tim- 
ing a  motor  it  would  result  in  improper  timing 
and  possible  loss  of  power  or  cause  the  motor  to 
knock.  You  can  avoid  such  difficulties  when  dis- 
assembling any  of  the  front  gears  by  marking  the 
gear  and  shaft  with  a  center  punch ;  also  mark  the 
gears  where  they  mesh  while  in  the  same  position. 
In  assembling  note  that  your  marks  correspond, 
which  will  be  the  same  setting  previous  to  remov- 
ing the  gears. 

Short  Circuiting,  Wire  Breaks. 

Ignition  derangements  are  often  due  to  the 
insulation  of  the  spark  plugs  being  cracked  or 
oil  soaked.  Then  again  there  may  be  carbon 
or  oil  deposits  or  the  points  too  close  together  or 
too  far  apart.  The  electrodes  may  be  broken 
through  using  too  much  force  and  too  heavy  a 
wrench.    Look  over  the  plug  carefully  and  test 


Little  Things  That  Count.        197 

for  all  these  things.  Incidentally,  don't  forget  to 
take  a  peek  at  the  timer.  The  contacts  may  be 
worn  or  pitted,  there  may  be  dirty  oil  or  particles 
of  metallic  matter,  shoulders  on  the  segments, 
worn  bearings,  loose  or  broken  wires  causing  a 
short  circuit.  When  your  engine  stops  suddenly 
on  the  .road  it  may  be  due  to  a  score  of  things, 
and  it  will  always  pay  to  look  after  the  following 
first.  It  is  generally  due  to  lack  of  gasoline.  If 
not,  you  will  find  some  failure  of  the  ignition 
service,  failure  on  the  spark,  electric  circuit  dis- 
connected, broken  or  loose  wire,  terminal  loose 
on  the  coil,  storage  battery,  contact  maker,  switch 
or  spark  plug,  break  or  chafe  on  the  wiring 
under  the  insulation,  or  some  magneto  defect. 

Sometimes,  among  other  unheard  of  things,  a 
wire  breaks  inside  of  its  insulation  and  gives  no 
exterior  sign  of  the  break.  This  may  cause  all 
sorts  of  trouble  and  very  often  the  blame  is  laid 
at  the  door  of  the  ignition  department.  Spark 
plugs  are  changed  and  magnetos  pulled  down,  so 
that  it  is  a  good  thing  before  taking  everything 
else  to  pieces  to  make  sure  that  there  are  no  in- 
terior breaks  in  the  insulation  cable. 

Electric  Lamp  Bulbs. 

If  the  electric  lamp  in  your  head,  dash,  or  tail 
light  burns  with  reddish  color  instead  of  the  pure 
white  that  it  did  when  you  first  put  it  in,  it  is 
played  out,  and  it  is  time  to  replace  it  with  a  new 
bulb.  This  should  be  done,  not  only  to  give  a 
better  light,  but  to  save  money,  as  the  lamp  is 
consuming  more  electric  current  and  giving  less 
light.  Unless  the  lamp  is  one  of  the  Tungsten 
or  Tantalum  types,  you  must  not  expect  more 
than  600  hours'  service  out  of  it.  This  will  sur- 
prise a  good  many  people  who  think  an  electric 


198  Care  of  Automobiles. 

light  bulb  is  good  for  a  lifetime.  The  filaments 
of  the  electric  lamp  are  like  the  wick  of  a  kero- 
sene lamp,  they  become  charred  and  finally  burn 
away,  and  must  be  replaced,  but,  of  course,  after 
a  much. longer  use.  So  if  you  want  good  lights 
with  a  moderate  amount  of  current  consumed, 
watch  your  lamps  carefully  and  replace  when  the 
red  color  appears  and  be  sure  your  lattery  is 
fully  charged. 

How  TO  Distinguish  Direct  from  Alternat- 
ing Current. 

Direct  and  alternating  current  seem  to  puzzle 
a  great  many  people.  To  find  out  which  is 
which  one  has  to  ask  some  one  better  informed 
or  set  about  to  educate  yourself  how  to  tell 
the  difference,  and  the  following  simple  way 
is  open  to  every  one.  Hold  a  simple  magnet  bar 
near  a  lighted  incandescent  lamp ;  if  the  current 
is  alternating  the  filament,  that  is,  the  part  inside 
the  lamp  from  which  the  light  emanates,  will 
vibrate;  if  the  current  is  direct  the  filament  will 
be  attracted  or  repelled  as  the  positive  or  the 
negative  pole  of  the  magnet  is  held  near  the  lamp. 

Hose  Connection. 

You  can  make  a  secure  hose  connection  to  gas 
headlights,  or  water  connection  by  first  wrapping 
a  small  piece  of  tape  around  rubber  hose,  then 
draw  up  with  a  piece  of  wire.  By  placing  the  tape 
around  the  hose  it  will  prevent  the  wire  from 
cutting  through  the  rubber' hose. 


Little  Things  That  Count.        199 

Drilling. 
When  drilling  a  small  piece  of  work  you  can 
keep  same  from  turning  by  placing  a  stiff  piece 
of  emery  cloth  between  piece  of  work  you  are 
drilling  and  table  of  drill  press. 

Laying  Up  Your  Car,  or   Putting  It   Into 
Commission  Again. 

Before  laying  up  your  car  for  a  period,  jack  it 
up  clear  of  the  floor,  allowing  the  axles  to  rest 
on  supports.  Allow  all  air  to  escape  from  the 
tires,  except  enough  to  shape  them,  and  then  ex- 
amine tires  and  rims  carefully.  •  *  • 

If  tires  are  practically  new  or  in  good  repair, 
and  rims  in  good  shape,  it  will  be  all  right  to 
leave  them  on  the  car.  Be  sure  to  remove  all 
oil  and  grease  from  the  tires.  Wash  them. with 
good  strong  soap  and  water.  If  the  rubber  is  cut 
to  the  fabric,  be  sure  to  have  the  injury  repaired 
TDefore  using  the  car  again. 

Whether  or  not  the  tires  remain  on  the  car 
during  a  prolonged  period  of  idleness,  they  should 
be  wrapped  to  exclude  the  light  and  should  be 
kept  in  a  cool  room. 

Oil  and  the  Commutator. 

Thitiner  oil  must  be  used  for  the  commu- 
tator in  the  timer  than  any  other  part  of  the 
car,  as  the  slightest  gumminess  will  cause  a 
tendency  to  skip  or  miss.  About  every  thousand 
miles  the  timer  should  be  taken  apart  and  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  the  process  including  wiping  out 
the  race,  fiber,  contact  points  and  all,  in  order  to 
remove  collections  of  thickened  oil  and  dust.  If 
the  oil  has  a  tendency  to  gum  excessively,  kerosene 
may  be  used  to  thin  it  out.  The  correct  propor- 
tion is  about  25  per  cent  of  kerosene.  In  cold 
weather  especially  this  is  of  value. 


200  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Cleaning  a  Spark  Plug. 
If  you  want  to  thoroughly  clean  a  dirty,  sooty 
spark  plug,  soak  it  over  night  in  alcohol.  Another 
good  and  quick  way  is  to  insert  the  plug  in  the 
ground,  terminal  point  down,  and  fill  the  shell 
carefully  with  gasoline  and  ignite  with  a  match. 
When  the  gasoline  is  burned  out  the  plug  will  be 
found  to  be  almost  entirely  cleaned  of  soot. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 
A  Few  Hints  to  the  Tourist. 

SOME  of  the  following  will  be  helpful  for  the 
tourist  before  starting  on  an  extended  trip: 

« 

The  Motor. 

Your  engine  should  be  in  proper  trim  and 
everything  should  be  gone  over  carefully.  ^  Oil 
should  be  changed  about  every  1000  miles.  Ex- 
amine motor  bearings  to  discover  whether  there 
is  too  much  play  in  connecting  rod  brasses  (bush- 
ings). Place  the  crank  on  the  bottom  dead  center, 
take  hold  of  the  connecting  rod  and  try  lifting 
it  up  and  down.  Should  there  be  1/64  inch  play 
they  should  be  taken  up  by  removing  shims  of 
equal  thickness  from  each  side  of  bearing  or  by 
laying  a  smooth  file  on  the  bench  the  brasses 
or  liners  can  be  rubbed  over  same  and  reduced 
until  the  connecting  rod  bearing  is  again  fitted 
properly.  After  each  rod  is  fitted  the  motor 
should  be  turned  over  by  hand  to  feel  for  any 
binding.  Should  too  much  be  filed  off  the 
brasses,  place  either  a  thin  piece  of  tin,  zinc  or 
brass  under  the  brasses. 

Valves. 
You  can  determine  the  compression  of  each  in- 
dividual cylinder  by  opening  all  relief  cocks  ex- 
cepting one.  Turn  motor  over  by  hand  until  you 
buck  compression,  which  will  indicate  you  are  try- 
ing the  compression  on  the  particular  cylinder 
with  the  relief  cock  closed.  By  continuously  rock- 
ing motor  against  compression  a  few  times  with 
crank  handle  the  compression  will  either  buck 
consistently  or  gradually  loose.  In  the  latter  in- 
stance the  loss  of  compression  is  due  in  all  prob- 

(201) 


202 


Care  of  Automobiles. 


abilities  because  the  valves  are  seating  improperly. 
Example:  Close  all  cylinder  relief  cocks  except- 
ing No.  1.  After  having  tried  No.  1  cylinder, 
open  same  and  close  relief  cock  No,  2  cylinder, 
and  so  on,  vice  versa.  Before  grinding  valves 
examine  same  to  see  if  they  are  pitted,  in  which 


Valve  Up. 

Valve  Down-. 

Space  should  be  .002"  r 
or  thickness  of  'hin 
tissue  paper 

Valve  Tappet 
Adjusting  Screw 

Valve  Tappet 
Check  Nut 

Valve  Tappet. 


An  illustrated  lesson  in  valve  adjusting. 


case  a  slight  cut  taken  off  in  a  lathe  will  save 
much  time.  A  valve  need  not  necessarily  show 
a  bearing  all  over  the  valve  seating;  however,  it 
is  not  properly  ground  until  it  shows  a  contact  all 
around  the  valve.  When  finished  grinding  adjust 
properly. 


Hints  to  the  Tourist.  203 

Attention  should  be  given  the  opening  and  clos- 
ing of  valves,  which  will  also  cause  a  loss  of  com- 
pression and  power. 

Ignition. 

Follow  all  wires  starting  from  battery  box  and 
leading  to  switch,  also  magneto  to  spark-plug 
wires,  and  examine  carefully  for  loose  terminals, 
or  possibly  a  wire  has  loosened  and  by  rubbing 
on  some  moving  part  worn  through  the  insulation, 
causing  a  leakage  of  juice.  Poor  contacts  on 
make-and-break  contacts  will  cause  misfiring. 
Good  flat  contacts  are  required  and  some  atten- 
tion in  the  shape  of  filing  the  platinum  points  on 
the  make-and-break  will  remedy  this  trouble. 

Steering  Gear. 

Examine  with  caution  pins  connecting  on  the 

steering    arm,    distance    rod,    and    axle   steering 

knuckle  pins  or  bolts  to  determine  whether  same 

are  all  properly  cotter  pinned,  greased  and  secure. 

Transmission  and  Axles. 

Starting  from  the  front  axle,  detach  all  the 
wheels,  remove  all  bearings,  and  after  having 
washed  off  same  in  kerosene  oil,  as  well  as  wheel 
spindle  and  inside  of  hubs,  pack  in  a  fresh  supply 
of  grease  and  attach  again.  Every  time  a  wheel 
is  removed  the  cup  of  the  bearing  is  removed 
with  it,  and  consequently  the  bearing  must  be 
properly  adjusted  when  the  wheel  is  replaced. 
The  best  method  is  to  turn  the  bearing  up  tight, 
and  then  revolve  the  wheel  a  few  times  by  hand, 
which  overcomes  any  tendency  to  "back-lash." 

Then  back  off  the  adjusting  nut  very  slightly, 
so  that  by  grasping  the  two  spokes  in  a  perden- 
dicular  line  (one  above  and  one  below)  yc^i  can 
begin  to  feel  a  very  slight  shake  in  the  wheel. 
If  this  is  more  than  barely  perceptible,  it  's  too 


204  Care  of  Automobiles. 

much,  and  the  adjusting  nut  should  be  a  little 
tighter.  Do  not  overlook  spindle  body  bolts.  If 
they  are  loose,  tighten  them,  because  you  will 
feel  this  looseness  when  you  are  adjusting  the 
front  wheel  bearings. 

When  you  have  it  just  right,  lock  it,  and  the 
bearings  will  give  you  the  best  of  service. 

Gear  bearings  should  be  turned  up  to  snug  fit, 
but  not  so  tight  to  prevent  the  gears  from  turning 
freely. 

Attention  should  be  given  the  transmission  and 
rear  axle  as  well  as  the  universal  joints.  Remove 
drain  plugs  from  the  aforesaid  parts  and  allow 
all  old  oil,  grease,  etc.,  to  empty  out.  Your  next 
step  is  to  replace  plugs  again  and  jack  up  rear 
wheels  about  two  inches  clear  of  traction.  Pour 
about  one  to  one  and  one-half  quarts  of  kerosene 
oil  in  transmission  and  rear  axle,  with  about  one- 
half  pint  in  universal  joints  if  same  are  encased. 
With  this  all  in  readiness,  start  up  your  motor 
and  allow  same  to  run  about  two  minutes  on  low 
throttle.  This  will  loosen  small  particles  of  oil 
and  grease  clinging  to  the  housings  of  the  differ- 
ent parts,  as  well  as  wash  the  bearings,  etc.  Re- 
move drain  plugs  again  to  drain  off  this  cleansing 
solution,  after  which  you  insert  plugs  and  refill 
with  a  fresh  supply  of  oil,  grease,  graphite,  or  any 
such  lubricant  as  is  recommended  for  the  par- 
ticular make  car  or  part. 

Spring  Clips. 

Manufacturers  employ  different  methods  in  at- 
taching spring  clips.  For  instance,  some  are  in- 
stalled with  a  double  lock  nut,  while  others  use 
the  lock  washer  and  nut ;  still,  it  often  occurs  that 
spring  clips  loosen  sometimes,  causing  the  break- 
age of  spring  leaves  or  even  an  entire  spring. 

It  would  be  advisable  to  look  over  the  spring 
clips  once  a  month  and  see  that  nuts  are  tight. 


Hints  to  the  Tourist.  205 

Brakes. 

With  the  car  still  on  jacks,  give  your  brakes 
some  attention,  and  caution  should  be  exercised 
if  any  adjustments  are  made  to  the  extent  that 
with  brake  being  applied  that  braking  powers  will 
be  equally  effective  to  both  wheels,  unless  brake 
connecting  rods  have  an  equalizer  or  some  other 
such  compensating  device,  in  which  case  it  will 
be  unnecessary.  If  brakes  are  not  equally  ad- 
justed on  each  side  it  will  cause  the  car  to  skid 
to  one  side  when  they  are  applied. 

In  trying  brakes  to  determine  how  they  are 
holding,  also  if  they  are  gripping  both  wheels 
equally,  do  not  apply  fully,  but  gradually.  With 
the  brake  only  partly  applied,  you  try  one  wheel, 
then  the  other,  and  by  gradually  applying  more 
brake  you  will  notice  in  pulling  on  the  wheels 
again  just  which  side  is  out  of  adjustment.  After 
having  made  the  required  adjustments  to  brakes, 
be  sure  to  see  that  there  is  no  binding  or  dragging 
by  spinning  the  wheels  a  few  times. 

Spring  Bolts,  Grease  Cups,  Etc. 

Manufacturers  have  provided  a  means  to  lubri« 
cate  all  moving  parts  wherever  there  is  any  fric- 
tion or  wear.  However,  some  drivers  and  owners 
fail  to  regard  seriously  enough  the  value  to  be 
gained  from  regular  oiling  and  greasing. 

Spring  bolts,  radius  rod  support  pins,  brake 
connecting  rod  clevis  pins,  steering  connections, 
and  a  few  extra  accessories,  such  as  shock  absorb- 
ers, speedometer,  electric  horn,  etc.,  should  be 
given  daily  attention.  With  a  piece  of  waste  and 
oil  can,  oil  such  parts  as  are  supplied  with  oilers 
and  give  grease  cups  each  one  turn  daily. 


206  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Tires,  Tools,  Accessories,  Curtains  for 
THE  Tour. 

Having  attended  to  the  pointers  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs,  it  now  remains  for  the 
tourist  to  prepare  for  weather  conditions,  tires  and 
the  necessary  tools  to  make  minor  repairs  while 
on  the  road.  With  the  top  raised  all  curtains 
should  be  attached  to  assure  they  will  fit  properly 
to  the  buttons  on  top.  Do  not  fold  curtains ;  it 
cracks  the  celluloid  and  creases  the  cloth.  Roll 
them  to  pack  away. 

It  is  advisable  to  replace  badly  worn  casings 
and  keep  the  older  tires  for  emergency  use.  In- 
flate tires  to  proper  pressure.  With  two  extra 
casings,  about  four  to  five  inner  tubes,  together 
with  tire  patches,  fresh  cement,  chalk,  about  two 
blowout  patches,  and  the  tire  equipment  would 
appear  complete.  The  tourist  should  next  have 
a  tool  kit  and  be  supplied  with  such  tools  as  will 
enable  him  to  make  small  roadside  repairs. 

The  following  can  be  used  as  a  guide  to  help 
make  up  a  tool  kit.  However,  experience  alone 
will  in  time  dictate  a  complete  outfit: 

1  two-pound  hammer. 

1  small  screw  driver. 

1  large  screw  driver, 

1  No.  25  Double  open  end  wrench. 

1  No.  27  Double  open  end  wrench. 

1  No.  29  Double  open  end  wrench. 

1  No.  33  Double  open  end  wrench. 

1  Jack  and  handle 

1  tire  pump 

1  complete  tire  repair  kit. 

1  oil-can 

1  6-inch  cold  chisel  with  J^-inch  face 

1  12-inch  monkey  wrench. 

1  14inch  pipe  wrench. 

1  pair  combination  cutting  plyers. 

1  rO-inch  flat  file 

1  set   tire  tools. 

1  12-inch  hack  saw  and  blade. 

1  box  assorted  nuts  and  bolts. 


Hints  to  the  Tourist,  207 

1  box  lock  washers  and  cotter  pins. 

1  spool  wire. 

1  piece  2  feet  insulated  wire. 

3  or  4  spark  plugs. 

1  6-inch  drift. 

1  canvas  pail. 

1  gallon  lubricating  oil. 

1  gallon  gasoline. 

The  tire  tools  should  consist  of  the  following 
1  Jack 

1  air-pump. 

2  tire  removers. 

1  repair  kit  box,  containing : 

1  piece  emery  cloth,  J/^  dozen  small  patches. 

1  tube  cement,  Yi  dozen  large  patches. 

2  valve  tubes,  J^  pound  French  chalk. 

2  valve  tube  nuts. 

3  valve  plungers. 


208  Care  of  Automobiles. 

Anti-Freeze  Solutions. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  cooling 
system  from  freezing  during  the  winter  months 
when  the  motor  is  stopped,  it  is  necessary  to 
add  some  ingredients  to  this,  and  consequently, 
prevent  the  bursting  of  the  radiator,  cylinder, 
water  packet,  or  some  other  unit  of  the  cooling 
system. 

The  following  mixture  is  recommended  by  a 
number  of  motor  car  makers,  which  will  give 
satisfactory  results : 

For  temperatures  not  lower  than  5  degrees 
below  zero — 

Wood  alcohol   ...   15  per  cent 

Glycerine    15     "       " 

Water 70     "      " 

For  temperatures  not  lower  than  15  degrees 
below  zero — 

Wood  alcohol    17  per  cent 

Glycerine   17     "      " 

Water  QQ    "      " 

The  wood  alcohol  evaporates,  and  in  order  to 
maintain  the  proper  proportions,  small  quanti- 
ties of  this  should  be  added  at  intervals. 


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